Assignment Code: BPYC-131/TEE/2021-22

Course Code: BPYC-131

Assignment Name: Indian Philosophy

Year: 2021-2022

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Note:

All questions are compulsory.

All questions carry equal marks.

The word limit for answering Questions 1 and 2 in about 400 words each.

Q1) Explain:

a) Concept of Śunyata in Nagarjuna’s Philosophy (10)

Ans) If the inability to explain a thing is sufficient reason to deny its reality, neither external objects nor inner souls are real, according to the Madhyamika. External objects, according to the Yogacara, are unreal because we can't tell whether they come from existence or not, from atoms or complex bodies. Even consciousness, or Vijna, is unreal, according to Nagarjuna, because we cannot say anything consistent about it. The objective world is referred to as Nya by Madhyamika. The absence of individuality, or pudgala nyata or dharma nyata, is referred to as nayata in empirical reality. This term Nya was used in early Buddhism, but not in the Madhyamika. When Hnaynists used this word, it was used as the fourth term, alongside the usual three terms, namely, dukha, anitya, and Ananda. So, for the Hnaynits, snya was used as anatama, and nya meant "nothing else." It makes sense.

Nyata is the middle path for the Madhyamika, and it is the logical outcome of pratityasamutpada. The nya vdain is neither a thoroughgoing sceptic nor a cheap nihilist, who doubts and denies the existence of everything for the sake of doubting and denying it, or who enjoys shouting that he does not exist. t. His sole purpose is to demonstrate that, if taken to be ultimately real, world-objects will be found to be self-contradictory and relative, and thus mere appearance. Nagarjuna, on the other hand, maintains the empirical reality of all phenomena. Madhyamika understands that absolute negation is impossible because it requires affirmation. Nagarjuna denies that both affirmations and negations have ultimate reality. n. nya refers to something that cannot be described. It goes beyond the four categories of comprehension. ng. It is neither affirmation nor negation, nor both affirmation and negation, nor both affirmation and negation, and neither affirmation nor negation. On the one hand, nya is relativity, and on the other hand, it is indescribable. As a result, everything is fine. Appearances are svabhava nya, which means they are devoid of ultimate realism.

Reality is prapaca nya or lacking in plurality. Madhyamika philosophies are built on dialectic. y. The affirmative (sat –is) and negative options are the most common. Both ‘is' and ‘is not' and neither ‘is' nor ‘is not' are conjunctively affirmed and denied, yielding two derivative alternatives of the form both ‘is' and ‘is not'. This is the Mdhyami's celebrated "catus-koti". According to nya vdins, whoever understands that all empirical dharmas are nya, or devoid of self-reality, understands the Brahma's supreme wisdom. He who understands that all worldly objects are illusions, dreams, or echoes of reality achieves blissful Nirvān̩a.

b) Concept of Pratyaksha in Nyāya School (10)

Ans) The concept of pratyaksha in nyaya school are as follows:

Perception (Pratyaks̩a):

Perception, according to Naiyyikas, is the direct and immediate cognition produced by the interaction of the object with the sense organs. Four elements are required for perceptual cognition. The self, mind, sense organs, and objects are among them. As a result, we perceive objects because the self is in contact with the mind (manas), the mind is in contact with the sense organs, and the sense organs are in contact with the objects. Ordinary perception (laukika) and extraordinary perception (laukika) are the two types of perception (alukika):

External (bhya) and internal (manas) perception are the two types of ordinary perception. External perception is divided into five categories based on the five sense organs involved: auditory, visual, tactual, gustatory, and olfactory. When it comes to internal perception, the mind and the object make contact. As a result, knowledge generates Feeling, desiring, wishing, and other internal perceptions are examples. c. Perceptions are divided into three categories once more. Indeterminate perception (nirvikalpa), determinate perception (savikalpa), and recognition (pratibhij) are the three types of perception.). These distinctions are only made in thought, not in practise.

Indeterminate Perception:

When we can't determine a perception's features like colour, shape, or size, we call it indeterminate. In this case, the sense organs make contact with the object, and a specific knowledge emerges almost instantly. This knowledge was given the name avyakta by the Naiyyikas, which means it cannot be explained using our vocabulary. In other words, we are unable to accurately and clearly express the object. This type of knowledge occurs when the self is only aware of the object without having any concrete knowledge of its name, form, qualities, or other characteristics. It's essentially a form of perception that hasn't fully developed. Its existence can only be proven by inference, not perception.

Determinate Perception:

Determinate perception, as opposed to indeterminate perception, occurs when an object's knowledge consists of characters such as name, colour, shape, and so on. It provides object knowledge, allowing us to recognise things like "It's a tree," "He's a man," and so on. In this case, a person can recognise and understand the object as it is.

Extraordinary Perception:

We'll now concentrate our discussion on extraordinary perception (alukika). To clarify, it is a perception that provides knowledge even when the senses are not in contact with the object. In other words, this type of perception occurs when the sense organs and objects come into contact in an unusual way. Nyya distinguishes three types of exceptional perception. These are:

1. Sāmānyalaks̩an̩a

2. Jñānalaks̩an̩a

3. Yogaja

Q2) Write a note on:

a) Second implication of Tattvammasi (10)

Ans) 'Tattvamasi' is a Vedic assertion that means 'You are That.' This is the refrain of all ten major Upanishads, which claim to convey the truth through dialogue between a teacher and a student. A man identifies with his body-mind-senses due to original sin or ignorance, and as a result, experiences all kinds of duality such as love-hate, pleasure-sorrow, excitement-depression, and doer-deed. This sows the seed of karma, trapping him in the endless cycle of birth and death.

A man achieves immortality when the mist of ignorance dissipates with the dawn of true knowledge. The second implication is known as Viesyaviesana sambandha, or qualified-qualified relationship. r. The meanings of words serve as qualifiers and qualifiers, separating each other. r. In the case of the term "white lotus," "white" means "whiteness," and "lotus" means "lotusness." In the first case, white qualifies and lotus qualifies, while in the second case, lotus qualifies and white qualifies. d. As a result, both word meanings demarcate each other when referring to the same location. s. However, the process of qualified and qualifier does not hold true in the case of the words ‘tat' and ‘tvam,' because opposing word meanings cannot refer to the same locus. s.

b) Asatkāryavāda (10)

Ans) The causation theory is an important part of Nyya Philosophy. Before we get into the Nyya theory of causation, let us first define what causation is. In the theory of causation, there are two important components. n. One is referred to as the "cause," while the other is referred to as the "effect." A cause is defined as an antecedent of an effect that is both unconditional and invariable. t. A consequence of a cause is defined as an unconditional and invariable effect. e. The Nyya theory of causation is referred to as ‘astkryavda' or ‘rmbha'. They believed that an effect is caused by a cause, but that the effect and the cause are not the same thing. The result is that a new product emerges that did not exist previously in the market. As a result, each effect is a unique product that has never been seen before in the universe. A pot, for example, is made as a result of a cause. The cause is clay, and the effect is a pot. Pot, according to Naiyyikas, is a new creation, a new beginning that did not exist before in the universe. They uphold the theory of Asatk by using clay in this way. ryavāda.’

Q3) Answers any two of the following questions in about 200 words each.

a) Explain the Buddhist concept of Pratityasamutpāda. (10)

Ans) All Buddhist schools emphasise the important characteristics of early Buddhism to a large extent. The ideas that everything is in flux and that everything is an aggregate, or saghta, have influenced the views of various Buddhist schools. m. Without a doubt, the doctrine of dependent origination, or pratityasamutpda, is the very foundation of Buddhism, and it continues to be crucial for the development of Buddhist schools as we know them today. According to Buddhism, when something changes, it changes completely, and nothing remains that endures the change. It is impossible to bring nonexistence to an end. Nothing can save you if you don't annihilate yourself. Also, if the thing does not lend itself immediately after its appearance, there is no reason why it should vanish at a later time. ll. As a result, if things aren't momentary, they must be eternal, which is unacceptable. le.

Other Indian philosophical systems criticise this conception of reality. How can there be recognition if everything is in flux, the critic asks? The Buddhist responds to this criticism by claiming that everything is constantly changing, but that we confuse similarity with identity. Memory and perception combine to form recognition. What we perceive and what we remember are both members of the same series, and thus they are similar, which we mistake for identity. The use of a flame as an example is used to demonstrate this point. The consumption of oil demonstrates that when a flame is burning, it is not the same flame in any two instants. Similarly, everything changes from one moment to the next. The next criticism is that causal efficiency is used as a criterion for determining what is real. A series, according to Buddhism, never ends, but rather transforms into another, such as the seed series giving way to the shoot series. When it comes to the ego series, however, it is said that it ends when an arhat achieves nirvana. If that's the case, the final member of the ego series isn't real because it lacks causal efficiency. If that's the case, the entire ego series must be fictitious, or they'll have to abandon their nirva ideal. a. However, Buddhists claim that Nirvna, or freedom from samsra, is the truth because anyone can reach that state of consciousness.

b) Write a short note on the various types of Abhāva (Negation) in Vaiśeṣika school. (10)

Ans) Kanda does not mention Abhaya as the seventh category of Vaieika substance. It was added by his commentators later. The Vaieika maintains that non-existence, like existence, can be felt. The absence of an object is called non-existence. Non-existence can be divided into two categories.

1. Saṅsargābhāva

2. Anyonyābhāva

The absence of one entity in anoth is stated by Sasargbhva. For instance, coolness in a fire, squareness in a circle, and so on. Sasargbhva is made up of three parts. These are as follows:

Prāgabhāva

The absence of a substance prior to its production or creation is referred to as prgabhva or antecedent non-existence. n. For example, the chair did not exist before the carpenter built it, i.e., the chair did not exist before the carpenter built it. d. Although antecedent non-existence does not have a beginning, it does have an end.

Dhvaṅsābvhāva

Dhvasbvhva, or subsequent nonexistence, refers to the absence of a substance after it has been destroyed. For instance, the absence of the pot in its pieces after it has been destroyed. ed. There is a beginning to subsequent non-existence, but there is no end.

Atyantābhāva

Absolute non-existence, or atyantbhva, refers to the absence of one thing in another at all times, past, present, and future. For instance, the lack of heat in the moo n. There is no beginning or end to absolute non-existence.

Anyonyābhāva

Mutual non-existence is another name for anyonybhva. e. Mutual non-existence means that one thing is excluded from the existence of another. r. It is the lack of something in another object. t. It is symbolised as ‘X is not Y.' The table, for example, is not a hors d'oeuvres table. e. A table's non-existence in a horse and a horse's non-existence in a table are mutual non-existences. e. Anyonybhva is eternal because two things that are not the same exclude each other at all times and in all circumstances.

Q4) Answers any four of the following questions in about 150 words each.

a) What are the arguments given by Yoga Philosophy to prove the existence of God? (5)

Ans) God, according to Yoga Philosophy, is free of karma, pain, pleasure, joy, and all other worldly attachments. He is all-knowing, all-present, and all-powerful. God is referred to as ‘vara' in Yoga Philosophy. He is endowed with eternal wisdom and bliss. s. He is limitless in his existence. He is the highest authority. y. God is exempt from the law of karm because he is eternal, benevolent, all-powerful, and all-pervasive. a. God is incomparable to everything. g. As a result, he is separated from liberation.

For the existence of God, the Yoga school presents three arguments. These are the following:

1. The Scriptures are ancient and old, but they serve as proof of God's existence. God is described as the ultimate existence, eternal, and sumum bonum of life in the Vedas and Upanisads.

2. Prakti and Purusa cannot come close to each other without the intervention of an efficient cause because their natures are so different. God is the effective cause. He is in charge of bringing prakti close to the purusa.

3. All of these qualities do not apply to God. He is the universe's "Supreme Being," the source of all substratum, and the creator of all living creatures on the planet. An ordinary human being cannot create or control the entire world because it is so vast. As a result, God's existence is acknowledged.

b) What are the arguments given by Sāṁkhya to prove the existence of Prakriti. (5)

Ans) The Skhya Philosophy is considered a dualistic realist philosophy. It is dualistic because it believes in two ultimate realities: Prakti and Purusa. s. It also maintains the plurality of Purusas (self) and the existence of matter, so it is considered pluralistic. It is realism because it considers matter and spirit to be equally real. l. According to the Skhya school, the self (Purusa) and the non-self (Prakti) are radically different from one another. Prakti is the ultimate (first) cause of all objects, including our mind, body, and sense organs, according to Skhya. Every effect, it is observed, must have a cause. cause and effect are two inseparable elements that represent all forms of creation in the universe. As a result, all objects in the world are linked in a chain of cause-and-effect relationships. This is a ‘Satkry' relationship.

c) Write a note on the central theme of Kathopaniṣad. (5)

Ans) The Kathaka Upanishad is a significant ancient Sanskrit corpus of the Vedanta sub-schools, as well as an influential ruti to Hinduism's various schools. It asserts the existence of "Atman (Self)," teaches the precept "seek Self-knowledge, which is Highest Bliss," and elaborates on this premise, as do the other Hindu Upanishads. The Upanishad contrasts Hinduism with Buddhism's assertion that "Soul, Self does not exist," as well as Buddhism's precept that one should seek "Emptiness (nyat), which is Highest Bliss." The Katha Upanishad's detailed teachings have been variously interpreted as Dvaita (dualistic) and Advaita (non-dualistic) (non-dualistic). It's one of the most studied Upanishads. In the 17th century, the Katha Upanishad was translated into Persian, and copies were then translated into Latin and distributed throughout Europe. Other philosophers praised it, including Arthur Schopenhauer, Edwin Arnold, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, who credited Katha Upanishad for the central storey at the end of his essay Immortality, as well as his poem "Brahma."

d) What is the significance of Adhyāsa theory in Śaṁkara’s Philosophy? (5)

Ans) In a nutshell, akara proposed the Advaita (non-duality) theory, which states that Ultimate Truth is a subject-objectless state in which tmn, and Brahman are one. His motto was Brahma satyam, jagat mithy, jivo bramaiva naparh, which means Brahman is the only real Being; the world is unreal (ephemeral) because it is constantly becoming; and there is no distinction between jva and Brahma at the Ultimate level. The realisation of individual ego (jva) unreality and its complete merging in the Absolute Brahman is the realisation of Moksha. This (mukti) can occur both within the body (sadeha) and after death (vide). The realisation is ultimately the result of mystical knowledge (Jna), in which the knower and the known dissolve. As a result, the state of Moksa is devoid of any empirical attribute and distinct from any other state. Positively, only Sat Cit Ananda, a mystical eternal state of bliss, can exist. bliss.

Q5. Write a short note on any five of the followings in about 100 words each.

a) Śruti (4)

Ans) Gta is also known as Gitopanisad, implying that it is considered an Upanisad. The Gta is classified as a Smiti because it is based on the Mahabharata. Those branches of Hinduism that give it the status of an Upanisad, on the other hand, consider it a ruti or revealed text. It is also known as "the Upanisad of the Upanisads" because it is thought to be a summary of the Upanishadic teachings. ds.” The Upanisads are part of the ‘ruti' literary tradition ruti means 'healing' in Sanskrit. As a result, the Upanisads can be said to have been revealed to the seers (by go) rather than written by humans. ds). None of the Upanisads are linked to any particular author. Each Upanisad is traditionally linked to one of the Vedas or the other. Aitareya Upanishad belongs to the Rig Veda, Taittiriaya to the Yajur Veda, Chndogya to the Sma Veda, and Prana to the Atharva Veda. Veda.

b) Vishesh (Viśeṣa) (4)

Ans) Particularity, also known as Vishesh, is the polar opposite of generality and is defined as ‘individuality.' It denotes the one-of-a-kind individuality of eternal substances that are devoid of parts. Space, time, mind, ether, sound, and the atoms of these elements are the substances in question. As a result, it is both ultimate and eternal. Individuals are differentiated and distinguished from one another due to their uniqueness. As a result, atoms from the same substance are treated differently. As a result, each is distinct in its own right. Because a particular has fewer parts, it cannot be divided further. There are numerous particulars found because each is unique in its nature and distinguishable from other particulars. They are imperceptible because we are unable to perceive them.

c) Parā Vidyā (4)

Ans) The immortal is known through the knowledge of the Self, which is known as Par Vidya. All beings have their source in the self. It is eternal, all-encompassing yet subtle, indestructible, unseen and unknown. Par Vidya ensures mental purity, which leads to the Absolute. Gaining and losing material possessions is a painful experience. The pleasure derived from them is fleeting and unreal. The fleeting pain and pleasure highlight the disadvantages of apar vidya. A sincere seeker seeks something that is devoid of all constraints. In Indian philosophy, there are two levels of knowledge: Par Vidya (higher knowledge) and Apar Vidya (lower knowledge). Due to the spiritual nature of knowledge, only the former is true knowledge.

d) Paśu (4)

Ans) In the north, the pupatas are the oldest aiva ite tradition. h. They had a lot of ascetic tendencies in them. e. While their doctrines are similar to those of Skhya and yoga philosophy, they differentiate themselves from these schools by emphasising their aiva monotheism: for them, is completely self-contained and serves as the catalyst for the emergence of the world. Nature and souls are effects that are rooted in God's creation.

The liberated souls become inextricably linked to one another. Their yogic practise entails a continuous meditative contact with iva in soli. That is why they attend funerals on a regular basis. Their ritual practises were frequently regarded as revolving. ing. More radical groups, known as kapâlikas, believed in an ostentatious indifference to anything worrisome. They are adamant that it is the best method for liberating oneself from slavery. They were carrying human skulls, kapla, and a bowl of lard. They are worshipped as the skull bearer, kaplika or the frightful one, due to this factor. hairava.

e) Anupalabdhi (4)

Ans) The Mms Philoso has subscribed to this independent source of valid knowledge. Non-apprehension is the immediate knowledge that an object does not exist. An object does not exist in a specific location or at a specific time. But it does exist somewhere else. Anupalab is the ability to perceive the non-existence of an object in a given situation/place.

‘There is no book on the table,' for example. A person does not perceive the book directly through his or her sense organs in this case. The knowledge of the book on the table's absence or nonexistence, on the other hand, arises from the non-perception of the perceivable object. The non-existence of an object is defined as its absence from a situation in which it should be available. Anupalabdhi is the possession of knowledge of nonexistence of objects in an existence form.