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MAN-002: Archaeological Anthropology

MAN-002: Archaeological Anthropology

IGNOU Solved Assignment Solution for 2022-23

If you are looking for MAN-002 IGNOU Solved Assignment solution for the subject Archaeological Anthropology, you have come to the right place. MAN-002 solution on this page applies to 2022-23 session students studying in MAAN courses of IGNOU.

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Assignment Code: MAN 002/AST/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: MAN-002

Assignment Name: Archaeological Anthropology

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

 

Attempt any five questions. Choose at least two questions from each section. 20x5

 

Section A

 

Q1) Define Archaeological Anthropology. Briefly Discuss its main divisions.

Ans) The origin and development of human culture are the focus of the associated fields of anthropology and archaeology, which play a significant role in the social sciences. Anthropology, which is divided into two primary categories named physical anthropology and social anthropology, primarily focuses on the study of modern simple communities. Over time, several subfields within it, such as cultural anthropology, etc., arose.

 

The discipline of archaeology is significant and has its own methods. Through time-consuming methods, like as excavation, it recovers antiquarian remnants of diverse types from the field. Although archaeology has traditionally been used to describe and classify ancient artefacts and characteristics, Lewis Binford's New Archaeology Movement in the 1960s emphasised the field's more expansive anthropological objectives. Modern archaeology aims to recreate previous human societies and their cultural processes using techniques and strategies adapted from both the social and natural sciences.

 

One of the subfields of anthropology, archaeological anthropology, studies the origin, evolution, and material manifestations of the human species, including material culture. We can better grasp the diversity of the environment around us and how people interact with it by studying archaeology. In addition to these unique field techniques, archaeology also uses a number of general methodological approaches for analysing and interpreting the data.

 

Environmental Archaeology

The study of ancient human interactions with the natural world is known as environmental archaeology. It focuses on how the environment affected earlier cultures and how it affected the social and economic facets of earlier societies. As a result of the significance of these investigations, Karl Butzer defined archaeology as past human ecology. The two primary subfields of environmental archaeology are geo and bioarchaeology.

 

Settlement Archaeology

Settlement archaeology is the study of how ancient cultures interacted with one another as deduced from the analysis of the geographic distribution of archaeological sites. Studies on settlement patterns were started in the Viru valley of Peru in the 1940s by Gordon Willey of Harvard University. The natural environment, the technology used by the builders, and the numerous institutions of social interaction and control that the culture upheld are all reflected in these settlements.

 

Ethnoarchaeology

Ethnoarchaeology is the study of simple modern hunter-gatherer and farmer/pastoral societies with the goal of reconstructing and interpreting archaeological cultures. As a result, ethnography is a crucial tool for reconstructing ancient architecture. In the beginning, archaeologists were content to study anthropologists' written studies and books on modern civilizations, as well as use artefacts on display in museums and documents kept in archives.

 

Experimental Archaeology

In order to reconstruct ancient communities, archaeologists frequently employ analogies from experimental investigations. When other methodological approaches were unable to provide insights, experimental research, which have a history spanning more than 150 years, were of great use to archaeologists. Similar to ethnographic parallels, analogies from experimental investigations only offer potential or speculative solutions that must be verified in light of actual archaeological evidence.

 

Ethological Studies

Understanding the behavioural patterns of various animal species is the focus of ethological studies. Analogies derived from primatological study have been particularly useful for prehistorians in reconstructing the social behaviours of prehistoric hunter-gatherer cultures. In ancient times, zoo animals were the only animals that could be studied for their behaviour, including higher apes and monkey species. Only a few observations about primate behaviour were provided by such studies. Full-fledged field investigations of these primate groups in their natural habitats have been conducted in the previous 50 years; in some cases, these research lasted for several years.

 

Q2) What are the various tool making techniques? Briefly describe the techniques used during Lower Palaeolithic culture.

Ans) We'll learn about some of the earliest stone tool technologies, like those discovered at Olduvai Gorge. Additionally, you will receive details on some more sophisticated methods for creating stone tools. The technologies related to stone tools mentioned in this section include:

 

The Pebble Tool Tradition

Probably naturally fractured, sharp-edged pebbles that were carelessly picked up, used, and discarded were the earliest stone tools. We will likely never be able to determine how long this behaviour occurred in hominid prehistory. However, early hominids eventually started producing their own sharp-edged stone tools by deliberately choosing particular raw materials. The Pebble Tool Tradition, which was the earliest example of this behaviour, involved bifacial (two-sided) flake removal in order to sharpen pebbles and small cobbles. Although it had long been assumed that the sharpened pebbles were the desired outcome, recent research into the microscopic wear patterns on the previously disregarded flakes suggests that the flakes may have really served as the general-purpose cutting tools.

 

The Chopper-Chopping Tool Tradition

The Pebble Tool Tradition naturally led to the Chopper-Chopping Tool Tradition. Making flakes with sharp edges was undoubtedly the Pebble Tool Tradition's main objective. However, the cores could have also served as robust chopping instruments. The line separating the pebble tool tradition from the chopper-chopping tool tradition is defined by the regular diversification of the toolkit, which includes tools formed of sharp flakes and shaped core chopping tools. The latter lived for almost 1.5 million years without a substantial technological advance, especially in what are now China and Southeast Asia!

 

The Acheulean Handaxe Tradition

The Acheulean Handaxe Tradition represents the subsequent significant technological development in the manufacture of stone implements. Contrary to the Chopper-Chopping Tool Tradition, people who utilise Acheulean handaxes use a greater variety of tools, but the true distinguishing feature of the handaxe tradition is the skill and efficiency demonstrated in the manufacture of the handaxes themselves.

 

When comparing the two earlier traditions to this one, it is clear how lithic tool production has evolved over time, adjusting processes to produce more cutting edge per unit of raw material. The transition between the main tool traditions is characterised by a tendency of increasing tool and raw material efficiency. The Acheulean Tradition lasted for a very long time—roughly 1.5 million years—but was more prevalent in western and central Europe, the Middle East, and Africa.

 

The manufacturing process for the Acheulean Handaxes was remarkably similar to that of the other two kinds of implements. In other words, they were made by bifacial flaking with initial shaping done with a forceful hammer. After that, a thin, sharp cutting edge was created using a soft hammer technique. In the latter part of the time when these tools were being produced, the final phase was more prevalent. The more selective raw material selection, more control over tool shape, and elimination of larger, thinner shaping/thinning flakes are what make these tools truly unique in their fabrication.

 

Q3) What is ‘home art’ and ‘cave art’. Discuss cave art with suitable examples.

Ans) The various necklaces, pendants, and other items of personal ornamentation are the oldest examples of prehistoric art. The earliest example of prehistoric art is an engraved rib from an Acheulian level at Pechde l'Aze, dating around 300,000 BP. The etching depicts a serpentine figure with festoons. The earliest example of art from Central Europe comes in the form of a flat, circular bone from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Tata, which dates to 50,000 BP.

 

These items for personal adornment display the maximum level of decoration carved on them in comparatively later stages. The squares drawn in spiral progression on the Mezin arm bands make for an intriguing pattern. These take the form of chevron patterns where they combine. These pieces' ornamentation exhibit deft handwork and flawless craftsmanship. As examples of fashionable figures, consider a bone piece in the shape of a fork and another that is longer and has two dangling nodules about one-third of the way up.

 

Aside from these works of art, different personal adornment items include coloured and perforated shells, animal teeth with ornamental engravings, little ivory cylinders, and flat bones with holes drilled into the corners. During this time, domestic art in Western Europe begins to take on a more pronounced form centred on functional items. Isturitz's antler tips and rods, which have been intricately carved, are two instances of the people's exceptionally high craftsmanship. The Isturitz points have spiral and concentric grooves that are deeply curled, giving them the appearance of tiny versions of some Paleo-Indian ceremonial poles.

 

Cave Art

Typically, engravings, outline drawings, or paintings are the types of artwork seen on cave walls, floors, and ceilings. Animals are typically depicted solo or in groups of varying sizes. Commonly depicted animals include bison, wild cows, woolly mammoths, reindeer, ibex, and wild horses. Occasionally, a cave bear, a lone wolf, a cat, a rhinoceros, or a lion's head will also be depicted. The most uncommon forms are those of fish, birds, or humans. These are either depicted in profile or in a three-quarter profile using the so-called "twisted perspective." In later stages, contour shading is used to try to give the figures a third dimension.

 

In addition to these animal representations, practically every significant cave site also has some abstract symbols known as tectiforms, clavi forms, or blazons. These signs are challenging to read, yet they appear to be attempts to convey some sort of messaging. Numerous cave walls also feature a collection of hand impressions in addition to these tectiforms. A favourable impression is made on the wall when the hand is coloured and pressed against it. In some instances, the hand appears to have been sprayed over, leaving a marred or stencilled hand impression. These hand impressions frequently feature severed fingers.

 

Another cave in the same area, Font-de-Gaume, has produced priceless traces of Palaeolithic art. The highly distinctive form and manner of Font-de-latter Gaume's era art are well known. A panel with images of reindeer, bison, and mammoths stands out among the other representations. Two complete and four partial tent-shaped lines figures that are coloured and likewise engraved are layered over these. Four of these signs are multicoloured, and the body and shoulder region are colour splashed. Outlines of a finished hut can be seen on this washed surface.

 

Section B

 


Q1) Briefly comment on the Middle Palaeolithic culture in India.

Ans) India's Middle Palaeolithic cultural era is characterised by the manufacture of flake tools. In 1956, Sankalia discovered and used these flake tools for the first time, initially in the Godavari valley in north Karnataka and later in combination with the second aggradational deposit of the Pravara river at Nevasa. He referred to this sector as Nevasian. A significant number of river valley surveys along the Narmada, Son, Burhabalang, Krishna, and its many tributaries were soon organised by Sankalia. These research revealed flake-tool industries, demonstrating that what he had initially referred to be Nevasian was not a local phenomenon but rather a characteristic of Indian Stone Age communities as a whole. For this period of Indian antiquity, the term "Middle Stone Age" was initially used. The name Middle Palaeolithic has since come to be recognised.

 

The debitage consists of many types of flakes, including simple, end-struck, side-struck, and indeterminate, as well as chips, flake cores, and flakes for core rejuvenation. The amorphous, pyramidal, globular, and discoidal flake cores are present. The stone hammer, cylinder hammer, and Levallois methods are employed in the creation of tools. Sharp edges, step flaking, shallow and small flake scars, secondary retouching at the margins, and secondary retouching are all characteristics of the tools' secondary retouching. Medium to fine grained quartzite, chert, jasper, and chalcedony are the basic minerals utilised to make tools. In Southwest Asia's Acheulian Tradition, where the Mousterian culture is linked to Homo neanderthalensis, some Middle Palaeolithic bifacial flake points, scraper types, and retouched flake tools resemble the Mousterian core and flake tools in terms of typology and technology.

 

In Andhra Pradesh, the Middle Palaeolithic industries come after the Lower Palaeolithic and are found in Gravel II wherever they are found in a stratified context. Based on geomorphological criteria, the Gravel II deposits in the river systems of the Deccan have been dated to the late Middle Pleistocene to early Upper Pleistocene. The first person to create a sizable collection of flake tools from the Kurnool neighbourhood was Cammiade. The Chittoor and Nalgonda districts were thereafter thoroughly investigated. Two of the more prosperous sites on Krishna are Ramatirthampaye and Raigirvagu. The tools are made of quartzite with tiny grains and extensively use the cylindrical hammer technique. Some of these tools are occasionally created on cores, and many of them preserve pebble cortex. There are numerous discoid implements, such as circular scrapers, as well as long blades with burin-prepared edges.

 

The Middle Palaeolithic once more has a tendency to lose its distinction and meld with the Upper Palaeolithic as one travels through the Chhatisgarh region, and lastly into the Chhotanagpur forest. These assemblages are replete with blade cores. In practically all of the rivers in Orissa, Mohapatra has documented Middle Palaeolithic artefacts, demonstrating their abundance in both pebble choppers and blade cores. We see that the Middle Palaeolithic, like the earlier Lower Palaeolithic, has a widespread distribution in the Belan valley in Allahabad district as we move northward through the Narmada into the Gangetic plain.

 

A portion of the Narmada has been exposed at Bhedaghat on the Narmada near Jabalpur because to recent flooding. Sheila Mishra has done some research on this. Four separate Quaternary stages; the lowest of these also produced some Acheulian forms. The Middle Palaeolithic types found in the levels have a date of 25,160 B.P. In addition to medium-sized cleavers composed of chert, the Middle Palaeolithic tools also feature several side scrapers. The evidence from Bhimbetka, located in the centre of the Narmada zone, demonstrates the growth of a Mousterian industry from an Upper Acheulian base. However, due to the abrupt change in raw materials that heralds this age, Middle Palaeolithic seems as exotic 100 kilometres distant in Shivna in the major Narmada valley.

 

Q2) What is civilization? Discuss various characteristic features of civilization with reference to Harappan culture.

Ans) A complex manner of life known as civilization is characterised by metropolitan areas, communal means of communication, institutional frameworks, and labour division. The term "civilization" refers to a sophisticated way of life that emerged as a result of the emergence of networks of urban settlements. The earliest civilizations emerged between 4000 and 3000 B.C.E., when the development of trade and agriculture made it possible for people to have an abundance of food and a stable economy.

 

The fact that many people were no longer required to work in agriculture allowed a wide range of vocations and interests to grow in a relatively small area. Mesopotamia was the birthplace of civilization, followed by Egypt. By around 2500 BCE, China had a thriving civilization, while Central America had one by approximately 1200 BCE. With the exception of Antarctica, every continent saw the development of civilization.

 

The Harappan Urbanization and Standardization

The urban or mature Harappan Phase includes a wide variety of urban and non-urban rural sites that are different in size and function but are inherently known for several features like town planning with defensive walls and impressive gates around the site, two or more divisions of the settlement at the site, drains, baked brick structures, brick size, pottery, script, similarity in craft products and techniques, seals, weights and measures, evidence of external trade, and bricks.

 

Town Planning

The Harappan Civilization had a thriving urban architecture that was set out in a grid pattern with provisions for a sophisticated drainage system. The existence of monumental architecture is demonstrated by the citadel, defence walls, dams, etc. The greatest cities of the Indus civilization by a wide margin were Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira, which were also obviously significant regional political and administrative centres. The Citadel was reserved for rulers, and Lower Town was reserved for the general populace, within the urban cities.

 

Subsistence and Economy

Agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade formed the foundation of the economy, which relied on specialised exchange networks for the acquisition and distribution of manufactured goods and raw materials both within and outside the boundaries of the civilization that was in existence. The Harappan civilization appears to have developed from its forebears, employing irrigation agriculture with sufficient expertise to benefit from the expansive and fertile Indus River basin while managing the powerful yearly flood that simultaneously fertilises and destroys.

 

Industry

A vast variety of material resources were mined at numerous sites during the Harappan civilization's economic boom, including marine shells, ivory, carnelian, steatite, faience, lapis lazuli, gold, and silver. It was believed that the crafts produced uniform objects that were dispersed across the Indus valley. There is frequently evidence of specialised crafts being separated into separate sites and sections within the sites. The centralised production control, coordinated by a state-level organisation, or the outcome of a conservative ideology are blamed for the standardisation of crafts.

 

Terracotta Art

The greatest pottery in India, known as Harappan pottery, is a testament to the skill of the Harappan potter. It is made of incredibly fine, clean, well-levigated clay that has been consistently well burned. A red slip is used to condition the surface, and black designs are then painted over it. Although there is a wide range of painted designs, the majority of the pottery is plain. The distinctive ones include intersecting circles, fish scales, the pipal leaf, etc.

 

Copper/Bronze Metallurgy

The Harappans were known for using copper and bronze to shape their tools, containers, and ornaments. The majority of the artefacts discovered were common tools such axes, adzes, knives, fishhooks, chisels, pots, and pans, as well as items for personal use like jewellery in the form of bangles, beads, and diadem strips. Relatively few weapons of war were discovered.

 

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