Assignment Code: MDV-103/TMA/2021-22

Course Code: MDV-103

Assignment Name: Issues and Challenges of Development

Year: 2021-2022

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Marks: 100

Q1) Explain vicious circle of poverty? What measures have to be taken to control poverty in the developing countries?

Ans) The interconnectivity of different elements that reinforce one other for developing poverty is referred to as the vicious circle of poverty. They are impoverished because there are too many of them. Because they are poor, there are far too many of them. The causes of this vicious cycle of poverty, according to Nurkse and Kindleberger, can be divided into three categories.

Supply Side Factors

The supply side of the vicious circle shows that productivity in developing countries is so low that capital formation is impossible. "The backward nations cannot get their heads above water because their production is so low that they can spare no money for capital formation that would increase their standard of life," Samuelson writes. On the supply side, Nurkse claims that because of the low level of national income, there is a limited capacity to save. Low real income is caused by low productivity, which is largely attributable to a scarcity of capital. The lack of capital is a result of a limited ability to save, creating a vicious spiral.

As a result, it is evident that the main cause of poverty is a lack of savings. As a result, investment in production channels is not conceivable. Consumption accounts for a large portion of GDP. People are unable to save. As a result, there is a scarcity of capital formation and investment. Although wealthy people have the ability to save, many prefer to spend their excess on expensive items rather than conserving. They preferred high-priced stuff and products from other countries. As a result, their demand does not expand the market's size. As a result, developing countries lack investment opportunities.

Demand Side Factors

Several factors on the demand side, according to Nurkse, produce poverty. Because of the people's poor purchasing power, which is a result of their low real income, the incentive to invest in developing countries is limited. The low level of demand in many countries is the primary cause of poverty. As a result, market sizes are still small. The market's modest size constitutes a roadblock in the path of investment attraction.

Market Imperfections

According to Meier and Baldwin, market flaws inhibit the optimal allocation and utilisation of natural resources, resulting in underdevelopment and, ultimately, poverty. The character of human resources influences the development of natural resources. Natural resources, on the other hand, are underutilised, mistreated, and unutilized due to a lack of expertise and knowledge.

Measures for Poverty in Developing Countries

It is commonly acknowledged that while reducing income poverty is relatively simple, eliminating numerous deprivations is more difficult. As a result, poverty reduction strategies should go beyond income poverty, inadequacy of fundamental requirements and rights, and lack of access to both productive assets and social infrastructure. As a result, poor empowerment is seen as a vital factor in promoting poverty alleviation. Empowerment is pursued by allowing the disadvantaged to participate in governance and development decisions. NGOs, donor agencies, and development activists are currently pressuring policymakers to include all stakeholders in poverty alleviation programmes, engage panchayats, and promote institutions like as self-help groups and user groups, as well as mobilise the poor for collective action. Poverty is the result of livelihood systems and the sociopolitical and economic forces that drive them, according to SAPAP. SAPAP claims that accelerated poverty reduction requires multifaceted interventions centred on land and other property rights, wage negotiating power, holistic health care, microfinance and insurance, and physical and social security. The main challenge is to reduce the rich's grip on local institutions' governance and make it easier for the poor to participate.

Different approaches to overcoming poverty are covered further down:

Increase in Saving: To break free from the supply-side vicious circle, Efforts should be undertaken in these countries to boost savings so that investment can be done. It may be encouraged to use productive channels. In order to boost savings and decrease spending, Marriages, social ceremonies, and other such events should be limited. In developing countries, Savings are difficult to come by in many countries. As a result, in this sense, Government intervention is required. The government has the ability to increase savings. through modifying the country's budgetary policy The government has the authority to levy high taxes. high-end items Furthermore, it has the potential to strengthen the function of direct taxes. Consequently, the By modifying the tax structure, the government can reduce consumption.

Increase in Investment: Apart from growing savings, investing resources in productive channels is also very useful in breaking the poverty cycle. Short-term and long-term investment policies should be synchronised. People can receive the necessary commodities at reasonable prices with a short-term investment, which will improve their expertise. Furthermore, in addition to short-term investments, investment in multipurpose projects such as iron and chemical fertilisers should be promoted. Proper monetary and banking policies should be implemented in UDCs so that small savings can be facilitated and encouraged.

Balanced Growth: In order to break the demand-side vicious circle in under a year, The size of the market in developed countries should be increased so that People may be persuaded to invest. Prof. Nurkse advocated for this in this regard. The theory of balanced growth is a concept that has been around for a long time. According to the balanced principle, Investment should be made in every aspect of an economy to ensure growth. A demand from one industry can be met by a demand from another. As a result, an increase is expected. Incentive to increase demand will result in a larger market, and therefore the inducement to increase demand invest.

Hirschman, Singer, and Fleming, on the other hand, are economists. do not believe that the balanced growth policy is effective. They assert that Unbalanced growth policy would be more beneficial. There is a UDC in every UDC. There is every chance of an increase in demand, as well as the necessity for an increase in supply. monetary earnings The majority of UDCs have implemented a structured budgeting approach. development. As a result of increased public sector investment, the money supply expands. As a result of increased monetary wealth, the size of the family has grown. The market expands. These countries are attempting to increase the size of their overseas trade. By boosting their exports, they can expand their market.

Human Capital Formation: The biggest impediment to economic growth in developing countries is a lack of human capital. Human capital cannot be overlooked any longer. Many ideas can be given to improve personnel skill. Education, technical expertise, and vocational training, for example, should be expanded in these countries. Health-care facilities should be improved, as this will raise worker efficiency. It is necessary to improve transportation and communication.

Industrialisation: Poverty can be abolished through a self-sustaining manufacturing process. To create a powerful process of ancillary industries and vocations, all industries should be linked. The formation of auxiliary industries can have a powerful percolation influence on industries.

Agriculture and industry should be integrated. Agro-based companies, which are labor-intensive, should expand to generate jobs for village residents. Industrialisation has the potential to aid in the growth process and raise people's living standards.

Other Measures for Poverty Reduction

1. More employment opportunities : Poverty can be eradicated by expanding employment possibilities, allowing people to meet their basic necessities.

2. Minimum needs programmes: Providing the bare necessities to the impoverished can assist to alleviate poverty.

3. Social security programmes: Various social security programmes, such as worker's compensation, maternity benefits, provident funds, and so on, can combat poverty from the front.

4. Small scale industries: Encouragement and establishment of small-scale companies can help to alleviate poverty in rural regions by creating jobs.

5. Spread of education: Education can raise people's knowledge and confidence in their ability to find ways out of poverty.

6. Empowerment of poor: Because of the merciless development system, poor people have no voice. As a result, impoverished people's empowerment will help to alleviate poverty.

7. Land reforms: In India, land belongs to absentee landlords. As a result, land reform is required to provide rights to the actual soil tiller.

8. Asset creation: It is necessary to develop productive assets that will provide underprivileged individuals with a steady source of income.

9. Political will: To address the problem of poverty, political will and determination are required. Government policy should be crafted with the goal of achieving a country free of poverty.

10. Social change: Dogmas should be removed from social strata and traditional beliefs. No one should be discriminated against because of their caste. To alleviate poverty among the lower castes and women, social reforms are also required.

Q2) Discuss the role of infrastructure in development. Describe how to measure infrastructural development of a nation state.

Ans) Role of Infrastructure in Development

Infrastructure is widely acknowledged as critical to long-term economic development. Regardless of progress on other fronts, high transaction costs resulting from insufficient and inefficient infrastructure might impede the economy from reaching its full growth potential. Physical infrastructure, such as transportation, power, and communication, enables growth through backward and forward linkages; social infrastructure, such as water supply, sanitation, sewage disposal, education, and health, which are fundamental services, have a direct impact on quality of life. Increasingly clogged roadways, power outages, long lines for phone installation, and water shortages are evident evidence of capacity and inefficiency, raising concerns about the future sustainability of economic growth.

The ability to commercialise these projects and recover expenditures through a system of user charges would determine the success of private sector participation in infrastructure development. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have the ability to contribute more and assist India bridge the infrastructure deficit. In the previous ten years, there has been significant progress in drawing private investment into infrastructure sectors, first in telecommunications, then in ports and highways, as well as in individual projects in other industries. There is a need for effective resource alignment with the present GDP growth of 8%, which includes almost 51% contribution from services and 16% contribution from manufacturing.

To maintain this growth, India must build sound infrastructure that allows for the proper input of skilled, qualified, and socially satisfied labour; visible and reliable supply chains; timely and accurate information for decision-making; and efficient processes and updated technology to be applied to manufacturing and service operations. It is obvious that world-class infrastructure is required to keep up with 8% economic growth. As rising air travel puts airport capacity to the test, city roadways are congested, power outages are common, and passengers are often delayed. Following the Indian economy's industrial liberalisation, demand for infrastructure services has risen dramatically.

Unfortunately, infrastructural constraints continue to be the country's primary impediment to industrial success. Infrastructure projects, by their very nature, need large initial investments, long gestation periods, and a significant level of risk. The ensuing bottlenecks are posing severe obstacles to increasing efficiency. Water supply and sanitation are crucial basic needs for improving individuals' quality of life and increasing their productive efficiency. Rapid industrialization, natural growth, and migration from rural areas have all contributed to an expansion in the urban population. Given the restrictions of land and capital, as well as the need to regulate energy consumption, pollution, and accidents, this has encouraged the development of alternate means to meet the growing need for transportation.

Infrastructural development in a country aids in the efficient and effective operation of any organisation. Cost control is essential and within a company's reach because cost is a fact and price is a potential, and pricing is determined by market forces due to heavy competition. Lowering costs is possible with better-managed operations and smart infrastructure. In India, the nature of operations management is evolving. Customer demands for better services, technology's growing dominance, the view of the individual enterprise as just one component of the total value system, the increasing interconnectedness and globalisation of business and economics, and the growing number of stakeholders to satisfy are all contributing to significant operational challenges. The infrastructure or construction industry must deal with a number of difficulties.

The first is to compare project cost projections to actual costs incurred. According to our experience, the average cost of a project increases by 30% when compared to the projected cost. If the project is large, a 30% increase equals an additional cost of several crores of rupees to accomplish it. Due to the geographical spread of projects and the use of temporary or mobile offices, monitoring and controlling expenses is a major challenge. In such a situation, centralised purchasing becomes problematic, resulting in the loss of bulk discounts and a higher material landing cost. As a result, checking inventories and accounting for goods utilised becomes challenging.

Inventory levels should ideally be reviewed on a regular basis so that the budgeted project cost may be adjusted automatically. In this approach, an estimate of the cost, per cost site, may be written out at any stage of the project and compared to the present cost. The amount of time it takes to complete a project is decreasing. Infrastructure projects have large upfront costs and long payback periods; by completing projects quickly, considerable cost savings can be realised - even a modest overrun can result in a loss of crores of rupees. These massive initiatives necessitate the micro-monitoring of small individual tasks across several sites, which operations management facilitates. The provision of adequate, efficient, and cheap economic and social infrastructure is at the heart of development strategy and initiatives.

Enterprises are obliged to seek higher-cost alternatives in the absence of infrastructure services, which has a negative impact on earnings and output levels. Since the economy's industrial liberalisation, India's demand for infrastructure services has risen dramatically. Unfortunately, infrastructural constraints continue to be the country's primary impediment to industrial success. Infrastructure projects, by their very nature, need large initial investments, long gestation periods, and a significant level of risk.

Measuring Infrastructure Development

Some of the methods for measuring infrastructure development, based on World Bank principles, are presented below.

Implementation Completion Reports (ICR): When a project is finished and closed at the end of the loan disbursement period (which can take anywhere from 1 to 10 years), the World Bank or funding agencies, as well as the borrower government or developer, document the results obtained, the problems encountered, the lessons learned, and the knowledge gained from completing the project. The report, created by World Bank operating personnel, is for informational purposes only and is submitted to the Bank's Board of Executive Directors. The knowledge gathered from this results measuring technique will be useful in the future for similar projects.

Independent Evaluation Group (IEG): An independent institution within the World Bank or one of its funding organisations aims to provide an objective basis for evaluating the Bank's work's outcomes. The IEG evaluates the success of about one out of every four projects (about 70 projects per year). These project performance reports assess outcomes in relation to the project's original goals, as well as the results' long-term viability and impact on institutional growth. The IEG also releases impact evaluation reports from time to time to examine the economic value of projects as well as their long-term consequences on people and the environment.

Quality Assurance Group (QAG): The Quality Assurance Group assesses World Bank personnel or financing organisations' operations in developing nations, offering timely comments that can help improve project design and monitoring. The QAG issues an Annual Report on Portfolio Performance, which provides a strategic assessment of the size, composition, and quality of the Bank's loan portfolio and analytical research programme to the Bank's Board of Directors and Senior Management.

Results Measurement System (RMS): The World Bank's International Development Association (the fund for the world's poorest countries) keeps track of aggregated outcomes. Its Results Measurement System (RMS) is intended to keep funders informed about the IDA's effectiveness by focusing its actions on development outcomes. The system assesses outcomes on two levels.

• Aggregate country outcomes including

i) Growth and poverty reduction

ii) Governance and investment climate

iii) Infrastructure for development

iv) Human development.

• The IDA’s contribution to country outcomes, or agency effectiveness.

GIS Mapping: Multi sensor mobile mapping has become a key need in many emerging and established countries due to the pressing need for infrastructure expansion and to keep existing infrastructure in good working order. It is commonly known that transitioning from static to dynamic mapping has significantly accelerated infrastructure development. There are now a number of systems in use around the world that lack an uniform accuracy and performance requirement. The key factors that will meet the expectations of diverse parts of the infrastructure industries are automation, high accuracy, and budgets..

Q3) How to formulate Gender Development Index? Describe various gender adversaries and what measures to be taken to overcome gender adversaries

Ans) Formulation of Gender Development Index (GDI)

The GDI was created by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1995 to examine the impact of gender disparities on a country's overall human development. The indicators used to compute HDI and GDI are similar, however GDI is further restricted to calculate gender differences in each parameter.

The three areas utilised to assess human capacities for HDI are as follows:

1. life expectancy to measure longevity

2. educational attainment or literacy level to represent level of knowledge

3. an appropriately adjusted real GDP per capita to ensure a decent standard of living

The above indices are adjusted for the purpose of calculating GDI to provide gender-based results that explain the amount of gender disparity in a country. The GDI is intended to assess women's progress in each of the three areas listed below.

1. life expectancy at birth

2. illiteracy level

3. standard of living reflected in income level of women

Life expectancy at birth is a reasonable indicator of a category (particularly

women) in achieving growth and prosperity. It depends directly on the following

factors

1. health care in society in general

2. availability of facilities to mother and child

3. society’s cultural preferences

Males have a longer life expectancy than females, indicating that there is a visible discrepancy in society. The extent of gender disparity in a country can be categorically determined by measuring GDI using this metric. Similarly, access to education is determined by educational achievement or literacy rate. The majority of people in developing countries, where a large percentage of the population lives in poverty, are concerned about the accessibility and affordability of educational institutions. This indicator is used by GDI to correctly identify the extent of gender inequality that cannot be identified by HDI because it focuses on overall development. The people's income level determines their standard of living in considerable part.

However, using an absolute level of revenue to calculate any metric might be misleading. The population's income level can be significantly skewed, with big sections at the bottom of the pyramid with low-income levels and a few at the top of the pyramid with huge income levels. To determine the extent of disparity between men and women, the GDI considers both men and women's income levels. The GDI will degrade whenever and everywhere there is a large difference. According to UNDP data, industrialised countries routinely outperform poor countries on the GDI index. India is ranked 113 out of 177 countries on the GDI scoreboard, with a GDI score of 0.6.

The following three steps are applied for the calculation of GDI.

• The first step is to estimate male and female development indices. As there are three indicators, we need to estimate six development indices.

i) male education development indices

ii) male health development index

iii) male income development index

iv) female education development index

v) female health development index

vi)  female income development index

• Step 2 entails merging female and male indices in each indicator/dimension in such a way that disparities in achievement are penalised. Equally dispersed index is the name given to the resulting index.

i) To calculate the value of GDI, the final phase arranges the three evenly distributed indices in an outweighed fashion.

ii) The GDI, which ranges from 0 to 1, is the average of these three evenly dispersed indices. A GDI of one (GDI=1) signifies that a country has achieved its development goal and has eliminated gender differences in its population.

Gender Adversaries

The two main adversaries are:

Missing Women:

'Missing women' are a reflection of every society's gender imbalances. The gender with higher performance is favoured, while the gender with lower performance is ignored. This leads to more missing women being added to the list. Discrimination against women can start from a young age. In various regions of the world, parental selection, female infanticide or abandonment, childhood sexual exploitation, genital mutilation, and a lack of proper nutrition and health care all have an impact on the number of females who survive to adulthood. These factors, combined with limited access to education, early marriage, and early childbearing, have an impact on girls' health and welfare, which can last a lifetime. The following are some of the causes of missing women:

1. Patrilocal exogamy: Sons stay with the origin or parental family and contribute to joint income, whereas daughters leave their homes to join their husband's parents' household. Investment in sons appears to pay off in terms of education and property ownership, whereas investment in daughters is considered as a waste of money.

2. Economic Value: Despite the fact that women perform the bulk of the work, they do not have an equal proportion of revenue, earnings, or wealth. Discrimination against women in terms of incomes, employment, credit and capital accumulation mechanisms, and private social benefit systems has an impact on their children and other household members' economic well-being.

3. Patriarchal Society: A patriarchal society is one of the major causes of the diminishing gender ratio. Another cause for discrimination against daughters is the need for male successors to property.

4. Poverty: Women's circumstances deteriorate as a result of poverty. The disproportionate load of family life restricts access to education, training, and paid work. Women are driven into unorganised, informal work, which exposes them to economic, physical, and mental exploitation.

5. Declining sex ratio: One of the reasons that foeticide is a cause for concern is the diminishing sex-ratio. Many little girls are abducted before they are born. In comparison to Southern Indian states, the sex ratio in Punjab and Haryana in Northern India is low. Kerala has the highest sex ratio in India, at 1058. In 1991, the all-India sex ratio was 927, and in 2001, it was 933.

Violence Against Women

Despite the protections provided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, gender discrimination and violence against women and girls exists in many parts of the world and is on the rise. Despite pledges made in the convention, the Beijing Platform for Action, and the Millennium Development Goals to abolish all forms of discrimination against women, girls continue to be exploited by persons and victims of laws that fail to sufficiently protect them.

Forms of Violence

Gender-based violence reflects and promotes imbalances between men and women, jeopardising victims' health, dignity, security, and autonomy. It covers a wide range of human rights violations, including child sexual abuse, rape, domestic violence, sexual assault and harassment, women's and girls' trafficking, and a number of harmful cultural practises.

1. Witchcraft: A lady living in a hamlet is sometimes accused of being a witch and the source of the village's misfortunes. She is tortured and killed on a regular basis. Such acts are the result of a lack of education and superstition.

2. Devadasi: Girls are made devadasis as children to serve in temples, and they must leave their homes and live in the temple complex. These girls are raised at the temple under the care of priests, and when they reach adulthood, the majority of them are exploited.

3. Dowry: This is one of the most common crimes committed against women. A bride is expected to bring dowry in the form of cash or kind as requested by the bridegroom's family at the time of marriage. The marriage is not finalised if the dowry is not paid, and if the dowry is not paid after the wedding, the bride is tormented or even burned to death. A multitude of flaws in the judicial system allow the perpetrators to avoid prosecution.

4. Exploitation at the workplace, in schools, and at home: Because the perpetrator is a well-known individual, this type of exploitation is rarely reported. Colleagues, bosses, teachers, or relatives are the perpetrators of crimes against women. The victim suffers in silence due to social stigma and the inability to prove a trusted person's guilt.

5. Rape: This is one of the most common types of crimes committed against women. Not all rape instances are reported to the authorities. Victims of rape are not protected by the law. Many times, the perpetrators are close relatives, friends, or well-known individuals.

6. Blackmail: Women have become increasingly vulnerable to blackmail as technology has advanced. Blackmailing has become easier thanks to the deployment of spy cameras and their transfer to CDs and DVDs.

7. Sex determination: Another downside of technology is the ability to determine a person's gender.

8. Due to sex determination, the sex ratio is worsening. According to recent research, missing women are more common in wealthy northern Indian regions than in poorer southern areas.

9. Selling of Girls: It has been alleged that girl children are sold for a pittance in a few underdeveloped states and tribal tribes. They are sometimes sold under the idea of marriage as well. Many of them become prostitutes or bartenders. The family's poverty is also a factor in the sale of girls as domestic help or sex workers.

10. Other forms of violence: Forcing females into prostitution and honour killings are two examples. Females are killed for their honour if they rebel against their families' or relatives' wishes and marry into other castes or religions.

Programmes for Prevention and Care

Gender-based violence is acknowledged in both the household and public domains.

Such inhumane acts of violence should be avoided at all costs. To enable women, their families, and their communities to reach their full potential, discrimination against women in employment, access to capital, and technology must be eliminated, with a focus on developing economic opportunities for women in private enterprise, agriculture, and all other sectors of formal employment. Skills in education and training are critical for establishing economic prosperity. Traditional discriminatory practises such as sati, devadasi, and genital mutilation should be abolished, and the law should be strictly enforced. Legislative measures for the protection and promotion of women's rights should be developed. It is necessary to raise awareness of the laws, rights, and obligations that apply to family life. Psychological and financial assistance must be provided to victims of violence.

The UNFPA has implemented a number of methods to combat gender-based violence.

1. Ensure that victims of sexual violence have access to emergency contraception.

2. In collaboration with other UN partners and NGOs, strengthening advocacy on gender-based violence in all country programmes.

3. Working with Parliamentarians and Women's National Networks to advocate for women.

4. Incorporating gender-based violence prevention messaging into information, education, and communication efforts.

5. More study on gender-based violence is being carried out.

Measures for Gender Adversaries

Gender equality is an important aspect of a development plan that aims to help all people, both men and women, avoid poverty and improve their living standards. In the long run, economic development opens several doors for expanding gender equality. This assumption is backed up by a large body of evidence from around the world.

Establishing incentives that discourage discrimination by gender: The form of economic institutions has a significant impact on gender equality. Markets have a powerful set of incentives that impact employment, saving, investing, and consumption decisions and activities. Corporations functioning in competitive contexts discriminate less against women in recruiting and pay practises than firms with great power in protected environments, according to evidence from Mexico and the United States. Gender discrimination will be reduced if occupations in the private and business sectors are reserved for women.

Designing service delivery to facilitate equal access: The design of programme delivery, such as school systems, health care centres, financial institutions, and agricultural extension programmes, can help or hinder gender equality. Mobile bankers offer financial services to local markets, workplaces, and homes in portions of West Africa, removing the need for women to travel long distances to save or borrow. In Bangladesh, group-based lending schemes use peer pressure and support groups to secure payback instead of typical bank collateral. Women's financial resources have increased as a result of both approaches.

Foster economic development to strengthen incentives for more equal resources and participation: Gender inequalities frequently decrease when economic progress boosts income and reduces poverty. Higher salaries, like basic rights, usually translate into greater gender equality in resources, whether in health or education. According to surveys, the poorest regions of South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are projected to benefit the most from income development in education. As a result of globalisation, more women are working in India's private and corporate sectors in various roles.

Taking active measures to redress persistent disparities in command over resources and political voice: Women can eliminate chronic inequities in resource control by taking proactive actions that can be implemented rapidly, such as reserving seats in political institutions for women. Political reservation has been shown to be beneficial in enhancing political participation and representation in municipal and national assemblies in a relatively short amount of time in more than 30 nations, including Argentina, Ecuador, India, the Philippines, and Uganda. In different countries, ‘reservation' legislation takes different forms, but in general, it states that a certain number (or proportion) of political party candidates or electoral seats in national or municipal assemblies must be reserved for women. The Rajya Sabha's passage of the Women's Reservation Bill is an important step toward women's political empowerment in India.

Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women: It can be either government (national, state, or municipal) or non-government groups that assist the advancement of women. Despite the existence of institutional processes at all levels, they must be strengthened. The National Policy for Women's Empowerment aims to strengthen current systems by implementing suitable interventions, such as providing necessary resources, training, and advocacy skills to effectively impact macro policies, legislations, and programmes to empower women. Both the national and provincial governments in various states should monitor equal opportunity and gender budgeting policy initiatives on a regular basis.

The media's portrayal of the feminine gender leaves a lot to be desired. The press and the media are frequently accused of sensationalising painful situations such as rape, compromising the victim's privacy. There are very few positive examples about women who have spoken up for their rights. The media must become more gender sensitive and responsible when portraying women in order to play a key influence in societal attitudinal shifts. For this reason, a gender-friendly media policy must be developed.

Q4) Distinguish between sustainable agriculture and inclusive agriculture. Describe two important agricultural reforms undertaken in India for agriculture development.

Ans) Sustainable Agriculture

To describe sustainable agriculture, several definitions have been proposed. These, on the other hand, are frequently modified to match specific circumstances. The following are some examples of definitions:

Sustainable agriculture is a method of farming that can be passed down through the generations. This long-term agricultural strategy combines efficient output with prudent preservation of the planet's resources. A sustainable agriculture is one that improves environmental quality and the resource base on which agriculture relies over time, while also meeting basic human food and fibre needs, being economically viable, and improving the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.

The main focus of inclusive agriculture would be on:

1. Use of resistant cultivars.

2. Management of soil to maximize biological activity.

3. Creating conditions that attract natural pest control agents, such as attracting parasitic and predatory wasps with specific flowering plants.

4. Use of insect traps for monitoring and even controlling pests.

5. Ground cover and field borders are managed to encourage pest predators and parasites.

6. Release of specific biological control agents.

7. Use of low-toxic biodegradable/ botanical pesticides.

Inclusive Agriculture

Inclusive agriculture refers to the development of agriculture in areas where farmers have been systematically excluded from agricultural incentives, subsidies, and other similar benefits. Inclusionary agriculture would primarily focus on:

1. Agriculture promotion in dry terrain, hilly and sub-mountainous areas, and deserts.

2. Small, marginal, and landless agricultural labourers who do a great job but don't get anything in return.

3. Women's roles as cultivators, entrepreneurs, extension agents, and farm labourers in agriculture.

4. Incentives for all types of agriculture, including both food and cash crops, animals, fruits and vegetables, and horticulture.

5. Farmers in disadvantaged conditions and localities have access to finance from organised organisations as well as marketing facilities.

The Government of India has also stated that in order for growth to be inclusive, the agricultural strategy must focus on the 85 percent of farmers who are marginal, increasingly female, and who find it difficult to access inputs, credits, and extension services, as well as to market their output.

Agricultural Reforms

Land Reforms

Land ownership and use patterns were changed during British colonisation to make it easier for the British to buy land at low costs for mines, plantations, and other purposes. This system was not introduced to India by the British, but it was popularised by them. The British promoted the 'zamindari' system (where landlords collect tax from peasants) at the expense of the 'Jajmani' system (where everyone shares the land) with the introduction of the land tax under the Permanent Settlement Act 1793.

At the time of independence, land ownership and control were concentrated in the hands of a few landlords whose primary goal was to extract the maximum rent from their tenants.

The tenant farmer had little economic incentive to expand farmland for increased productivity under this arrangement (since they wouldn't make any money). At the same time, because the landowner would lose money, the landlord was unconcerned about improving the farmers' economic situation. Agricultural productivity dropped as a result, and the renters' condition worsened.

Land ownership was seen as extremely important in the years following India's independence. India was highly impoverished, and development on two fronts was required to try to eradicate poverty: high productivity and equitable distribution. The land reforms enacted and executed during the mid-fifties are the most significant event in India's agricultural history.

The following are the goals of land reform:

1. Reordering agrarian relations to achieve social equity.

2. Curtailing exploitation and enlargement of land base of the rural poor; and

3. Increase agricultural productivity.

Major issues covered in land reforms are

1. Abolition of intermediaries

2. Settlement and regulation of tenancy

3. Regulation of size of holdings.

Green Revolution

The Green Revolution is an excellent example of a well-thought-out development programme that highlights all of the important aspects of the development process. The Green Revolution is commonly described as the introduction of hybrid wheat and rice varieties; however hybrid adoption alone is insufficient to explain the Green Revolution's amazing successes. A comprehensive and well-coordinated programme comprising many changes in the way society organised food production enabled success.

The Green Revolution resulted in significant increases in land returns, which increased farmer incomes. Furthermore, with more money to spend and new demands for agricultural supplies, milling, and marketing services, farm families drove an overall increase in demand for products and services. This boosted the non-farm sector in rural areas, which flourished and created significant additional income and jobs on its own. Before the mid-1960s, the percentage of India's rural population living in poverty ranged between 50 and 65 percent, but subsequently progressively dropped to around one-third of the rural population by 1993. According to research, agricultural expansion and lower food prices are responsible for a large part of the steady drop in poverty. In Asia, per capita consumption of vegetable oils, fruits, vegetables, and livestock products has increased dramatically.

Major Factors behind the Success of Green Revolution

Mechanization of Farming: Intensive agriculture necessitates the employment of a variety of machinery that saves time and effort for the farmer. During the production, transportation, and processing of agricultural goods, farm mechanisation refers to the employment of various types of machines and other agricultural implements. Farm mechanisation was used by farmers in the countries for rapid agricultural growth, resulting in higher productivity. This has aided in increasing crops intensity, agricultural variety, better utilisation of available irrigation systems, timely sowing and harvesting, and input transportation to the fields. Farmers have been able to achieve better prices for their produce as a result of being able to conveniently visit the nearest market outlets.

Adoption of High Yielding varieties: The popularity of HYVs grew quickly. By 1970, HYVs had taken over around 20% of the wheat and 30% of the rice areas in developing countries, and by 1990, the share had risen to almost 70% for both crops. Rice and wheat yields nearly doubled. Farmers increased the acreage of rice and wheat they grew at the expense of other crops due to higher yields and profitability. They also raised more crops on their farm each year thanks to faster-growing cultivars and irrigation. Between 1970 and 1995, these developments more than doubled cereal production in Asia, while the population expanded by 60%. Instead of severe famine, per capita grain and calorie availability grew by approximately 30%, and wheat and rice became more affordable.

Q5) What is e-Governance? Discuss two e-Governance initiatives taken by the government in rural and urban areas with suitable examples.

Ans) E-government is defined as an endeavour to change government services with a focus on providing citizens with information-based services. It also seeks to create an ICT-enabled environment in government departments in order to improve public services and, as a result, promote the democratic process. E-government is also defined as an ICT-enabled government process that develops and delivers high-quality, seamless, and integrated public services, enables effective constituent relationship management, and supports citizens', businesses', and civil society's economic and social development goals at the local, state, national, and international levels. An ICT-enabled SMART government system is defined as e-government. It also aims to connect to various government systems (G2G), businesses (G2B), and citizens (G2C), among other things. In a nutshell, e-government refers to government organisations, processes, and agencies that are supported by information technology.

E-governance is basically a reimagined version of government aided by ICT. As a result, ICT applications are expected to uphold the sanctity of governance in all of its forms, substance, and spirit. E-governance is aided by e-government systems, which act as a back-end service providing entity, coordinating, and extending support to other agencies working in concert to improve public service delivery. A scenario for e-governance is depicted in Figure 3.1. It can be observed that e-governance encompasses the rigour of e-government systems while also providing the necessary structure for market (e-business) and civil society networking (e-citizen). This link implies that e-governance assists policymakers, decision-makers, and other stakeholders in achieving the goals set for society's overall growth. E-governance promotes e-democracy, in which all contacts between voters and elected officials are conducted electronically. Various e-governance and e-government models and frameworks have been established to comprehend the complexity of the issue, perceive the areas of ICT interventions, and clarify the deliverables via ICT enabled procedures.

Initiatives Taken by the Government in Rural and Urban Areas

Computer-Aided Registration of Deeds and Stamp Duties: An initiative of the Andhra Pradesh Government State tax departments have benefited from e-governance by registering properties in less time, storing data scientifically, and increasing system transparency. The Computer-aided Administration of Registration Department (CARD) project in Andhra Pradesh, which began in the late 1980s, has resulted in automated counters at land registration offices across the state. The project attempted to change the state's outmoded registration methods, which involved time-consuming document copying and indexing, as well as their unscientific, space-consuming storage in poorly kept backrooms. Brokers and intermediaries who abused citizens selling or purchasing property flourished in the state. The CARD project is an attempt to change this system using information technology1. Citizens can now complete registration processes in a matter of hours thanks to the introduction of CARD. The CARD project exemplifies some of the significant implementation challenges that state and national governments may face in their efforts to employ technology to improve citizen-government interfaces, and it serves as a model for them to follow.

When a project to computerise the process of issuing Encumbrance Certificates was launched in Andhra Pradesh in 1988, the notion of introducing computers was born. At a cost of around $31,000, a 386 server with 14 terminals was installed (Rs 1.33 million). The index registries of the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad were started with data entering. Technical assistance was supplied by the National Informatics Centre (NIC). The data entry continued for another 15 years until 1995, when a trial programme for issuing computerised Encumbrance Certificates was introduced at one of the city offices. In August 1996, J. Satyanarayana2 undertook a study to determine the viability of launching a comprehensive Registration Department computerization project to handle other registration requirements and difficulties. The study outlined methods for delivering various registration services electronically across the counter in an integrated manner, as well as a road map for computerising the valuation process. It also introduced the concept of electronic document management as an important part of computerising the registration process.

Objectives of the CARD Project

CARD is a large IT initiative that aims to overcome the problems that plague the registration system by delivering all registration services electronically.

It was built around the key goals listed below.

1. Remove the mystery surrounding the registration process;

2. Establish a clear property valuation system that is easily available to citizens;

3. Bring in a sense of urgency, efficiency, consistency, and dependability.

4. Replace the manual system of document copying and filing with a smart imaging-based document management system.

5. Replace the manual indexing, accounting, and reporting systems.

6. Introduce the concept of electronic document creation; and

7. The citizen interface has been significantly improved.

Benefits of CARD

The CARD initiative intends to improve the quality of registration services by establishing a digital interface between citizens and the government. The time-consuming procedures of the past have been replaced by a system that takes only a few minutes to complete. It takes five minutes for market value help and the issuance of an Encumbrance Certificate (EC). Stamp paper sales, document writing, and document registration take ten minutes, thirty minutes, and one hour, respectively.

KAVERI in Karnataka

The Government of Karnataka has launched another e-governance programme called KAVERI. The procedure of document registration has been done manually for the last five decades, and it entailed the following steps:

1. Stamping,

2. Presentation,

3. Admission of execution,

4. Identification by witnesses and

5. Registration, as prescribed in Karnataka Stamp Act, 1957 and Registration Act, 1908

Features of KAVERI

In every Sub-Office, Registrar's automated kiosks with touch screen operation were erected, allowing the public to access the following information in Kannada and English.

1. Market value of land in all villages, owns and cities in the state.

2. Model formats of commonly used deeds and forms required for Registration of Marriage.

3. Model byelaws of Societies and Associations.

4. Frequently asked questions and exhaustive answers.

5. Fee for Registration of documents/Registration of Societies/Firms/Marriages.

6. Acts and Rules bearing on registration of documents.

The documents were manually copied in specific books during the manual registration process. The handwritten documents were then authenticated by Registering Officers after they were cross-checked against the original documents. The public document would be the registered book. Because the manual technique required writing each document that needed to be registered, the complete registration process took anywhere from two to three months. It also involved making two or three trips to the registration office to see if the document was ready.

Finding an alternate approach that met the legislative criteria while also speeding up the process while maintaining the manual procedure's correctness was the solution. It seemed clear that computerization was the way to go. Throughout the year 2002, the Government of Karnataka's Department of Stamps and Registration implemented an automated registration process in the state. In Karnataka, more than 200 Sub-Registrar Offices were computerised as part of an outsourced model in which the vendor could finish the registration procedure in 30 minutes. The software was given the name KAVERI after the Carvery River.

KAVERI was introduced, and within 30 minutes of its presentation, the department had registered documents and returned them to the parties concerned. The graph shows that with the introduction of KAVERI, the revenue to the state exchequer increased significantly. Despite the drop in stamp duty and registration fees, revenue increased significantly. This was made possible by eliminating the human interaction, as the KAVERI system uses an automated algorithm to calculate the value of a property.