Assignment Code: MFN-003/AST-3/TMA-3/23-24

Course Code: MFN-003

Assignment Name: Food Microbiology and Safety

Year: 2023-2024

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Section A –Descriptive Questions (80 Marks)

Q1a) Enumerate the various physical, chemical, and biological hazards that may be present in our food.

Ans) Various Hazards in Food:

a) Physical Hazards:

1) Foreign Objects: These include physical contaminants like glass, metal, plastic, or wood that can accidentally enter the food during processing, packaging, or handling.

2) Temperature Abuse: Inadequate temperature control during storage and transportation can lead to food spoilage and the growth of harmful microorganisms.

3) Inadequate Cooking or Pasteurization: Undercooking or insufficient pasteurization of food can leave harmful pathogens alive and ready to cause foodborne illnesses.

b) Chemical Hazards:

1) Chemical Additives: Food additives like preservatives, artificial colours, and flavours can cause adverse reactions in some individuals.

2) Pesticide Residues: The presence of pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables can be a chemical hazard if they exceed acceptable limits.

3) Mycotoxins: These are toxic compounds produced by moulds that grow on various food items, including grains and nuts.

c) Biological Hazards:

1) Pathogenic Bacteria: Bacteria like Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria can proliferate in food and cause foodborne illnesses.

2) Viruses: Viruses such as norovirus can be present in contaminated water or food and lead to outbreaks.

3) Parasites: Protozoa and helminths are examples of parasites that can contaminate food, especially seafood.

4) Fungi: Yeasts and moulds can grow on food, leading to spoilage or mycotoxin production.

Q1b) List the factors which affect the growth of microorganisms. Explain briefly any two of these factors.

Ans) Factors Affecting Microorganism Growth:

a) Temperature: Microorganisms have optimal growth temperatures. For example, psychrophiles thrive at cold temperatures, mesophiles grow at moderate temperatures, and thermophiles prefer high temperatures. Pathogens like Salmonella grow best at body temperature (37°C).

b) Water Activity (Aw): Water activity measures the amount of water available for microbial growth. Microorganisms require a minimum water activity level to grow. Foods with low water activity, such as dried fruits or jerky, inhibit microbial growth because there is insufficient water available for metabolic processes.

c) Competition and Predation: Microbial populations can be influenced by competition with other microorganisms for resources. Some bacteria produce antibacterial compounds, such as antibiotics, to gain a competitive advantage. Predatory microorganisms, like bacteriophages, can also control bacterial populations by infecting and killing specific bacteria.

d) Host Defense Mechanisms: In the case of pathogens, the host's immune system plays a significant role in inhibiting microbial growth. Factors like the presence of antibodies, phagocytic cells, and other immune responses can limit the growth and spread of pathogens.

e) Oxygen Availability: Oxygen is a crucial factor that affects the growth of microorganisms. Some microorganisms require oxygen for growth (aerobes), some cannot tolerate oxygen (anaerobes), and some can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen (facultative anaerobes). Oxygen availability influences the types of microorganisms that can thrive in a particular environment. For example, obligate anaerobes cannot grow in the presence of oxygen and are often used in processes like canning to prevent spoilage by oxygen-dependent bacteria.

Q2a) Describe the chemical changes due to spoilage with respect to nutrients present in the food when bacteria acts upon them.

Ans) When bacteria act upon food, they can bring about various chemical changes that lead to spoilage. These changes vary depending on the type of food and the specific bacteria involved. Here, we will discuss some of the chemical changes in nutrients due to bacterial spoilage in foods:

a) Proteins: Bacteria can break down proteins through the process of proteolysis. During this breakdown, proteins are converted into simpler compounds, such as amino acids and peptides. Some of these compounds can have off-flavours and odours, contributing to the unpleasant taste and smell of spoiled food.

b) Carbohydrates: Bacterial action on carbohydrates can result in the production of organic acids, such as lactic acid and acetic acid. These acids lower the pH of the food, making it more acidic. This acidification can cause textural changes and affect the taste of the food.

c) Lipids: Lipids can undergo hydrolysis, leading to the release of free fatty acids. These fatty acids can contribute to rancidity, causing the food to taste and smell "off." Additionally, some spoilage bacteria can produce lipases, enzymes that further break down lipids.

d) Vitamins: Bacteria can degrade vitamins present in food. For example, some bacteria can break down vitamin C, leading to a loss of this essential nutrient. This can result in a decrease in the nutritional value of the food.

e) Texture and Color: Bacterial spoilage can lead to textural changes in food. For instance, the breakdown of pectin in fruits and vegetables by spoilage bacteria can lead to softening and loss of crispness. Additionally, the production of pigments or metabolic byproducts by bacteria can alter the color of the food, making it unappealing.

Q2. b) Give the different types of spoilage in the following foods, giving the micro-organisms involved:

(i) Fruits and Vegetables

Ans) Types of spoilage in fruit and vegetables:

a) Bacterial Soft Rot: This spoilage is caused by bacteria such as Pectobacterium and Dickeya. They produce pectinase enzymes that break down pectin, causing a softening of the tissue. The affected fruits and vegetables become slimy and emit an unpleasant odour.

b) Fermentation Spoilage: Lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus, can ferment sugars in fruits and vegetables, leading to acidification, textural changes, and the production of off-flavours.

c) Yeast Spoilage: Yeasts can ferment sugars and produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. This can lead to carbonation and off-flavours in certain fruits and vegetables. For example, spoiled fruit juices can have a fizzy or yeasty taste due to yeast fermentation.

d) Mold Spoilage: Molds are fungi that can grow on the surface of fruits and vegetables, leading to visible mold colonies. They can penetrate deeper into the food, causing structural damage and spoilage. Mold spoilage can be seen on fruits like strawberries and cucumbers.

Q2. b) (ii) Fish

Ans) Types of spoilage in fish:

a) Histamine Poisoning: Histamine-producing bacteria, like Morganella and Klebsiella, can thrive on fish and produce histamine, a toxic compound. This can lead to scombroid poisoning when spoiled fish is consumed.

b) Proteolytic Spoilage: Certain bacteria, including Pseudomonas and Shewanella, can break down proteins in fish, resulting in the production of volatile amines. This leads to the "fishy" odour associated with spoiled fish.

c) Rancidity: Fish also contains lipids, which can undergo hydrolysis and oxidation. This process can result in rancidity, with the development of off-flavours and a "fishy" or "oily" taste.

Q3) Define food borne diseases. Enumerate the various food born infections, food intoxications, food borne toxic infections affecting food safety, giving examples.

Ans) Definition of Foodborne Diseases:

Foodborne diseases, also known as foodborne illnesses or food poisoning, refer to a range of illnesses caused by the consumption of contaminated food. These diseases can result from various microorganisms, chemicals, or toxins present in food. Foodborne diseases are a significant public health concern, and they can lead to a wide range of symptoms, from mild gastrointestinal discomfort to severe illness and even death.

Types of Foodborne Diseases:

a) Foodborne Infections: Foodborne infections are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that invade the body and multiply in the digestive system. They can lead to illnesses such as gastroenteritis, characterized by symptoms like diarrhoea, nausea, and abdominal pain. Examples include:

1) Salmonellosis: Caused by the bacterium Salmonella, commonly associated with raw eggs, and undercooked poultry.

2) Campylobacteriosis: Caused by Campylobacter bacteria, often linked to undercooked poultry and contaminated water.

b) Food Intoxications: Food intoxications result from the ingestion of toxins that are already present in the food due to bacterial or fungal activity.

Symptoms can appear rapidly after consumption. Examples include:

1) Botulism: Caused by the toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum bacteria. It can be found in improperly canned foods and honey.

2) Staphylococcal Food Poisoning: Caused by toxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, typically associated with foods like custards and salads.

c) Foodborne Toxic Infections: Foodborne toxic infections occur when food is contaminated with both pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins.

These diseases combine the characteristics of infections and intoxications. Examples include:

1) Listeriosis: Caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, which can be found in contaminated dairy products and deli meats.

2) E. coli Infections: Some strains of Escherichia coli produce toxins that lead to severe foodborne illnesses. Consumption of undercooked ground beef can be a source of contamination.

d) Chemical Contamination: Foodborne diseases can also result from chemical contaminants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals. Examples include mercury contamination in seafood and pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables.

e) Parasitic Infections: Parasitic infections like Giardia and Cryptosporidium can be transmitted through contaminated water and food. They lead to gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhoea.

f) Viral Infections: Viral foodborne diseases include illnesses caused by viruses like norovirus and hepatitis- A. Contaminated shellfish and unwashed fruits and vegetables are common sources.

Q4. a) Define the term 'food contamination'. Briefly discuss the different types of environmental contaminants that impact food safety.

Ans) Food contamination refers to the presence of harmful substances in food that can lead to adverse health effects when consumed. These contaminants can be introduced at various stages of the food production and distribution process. Environmental contaminants are one category of substances that can affect food safety. These contaminants originate from the environment and can enter the food chain through air, water, soil, or the use of pesticides and fertilizers.

There are different types of environmental contaminants that impact food safety:

a) Heavy Metals: Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic can contaminate food through soil and water. They can accumulate in plants and seafood, posing health risks when ingested. For example, mercury in certain fish species is a well-known concern.

b) Pesticide Residues: Pesticides are used in agriculture to protect crops from pests. Residues of these chemicals can remain on fruits and vegetables, especially if not properly washed or peeled. Chronic exposure to pesticide residues can have adverse health effects.

c) Industrial Pollutants: Industrial activities can release pollutants into the air and water, which can eventually contaminate the food chain. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), are examples of industrial contaminants that can accumulate in fatty fish and dairy products.

d) Mycotoxins: These are toxins produced by moulds and fungi that can grow on various food commodities. Aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus flavus, can contaminate nuts, grains, and legumes and are known carcinogens.

e) Radionuclides: Radioactive substances can contaminate food and water, primarily through nuclear accidents or nuclear testing. Contaminated seafood, such as fish and seaweed, can accumulate radioactive substances.

f) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): PAHs are formed during the incomplete combustion of organic materials, and they can contaminate foods when they are grilled, smoked, or charred. They are associated with certain types of cancer.

Q4. b) Write a brief review on naturally occurring toxicants in plant foods.

Ans) Plant foods contain naturally occurring toxicants that can be harmful if consumed in excessive amounts. Some examples include:

a) Cyanogenic Glycosides: Found in cassava, lima beans, and almonds, cyanogenic glycosides can release toxic cyanide when the plant cells are disrupted. Proper processing and cooking are essential to remove or neutralize these compounds.

b) Solanine and Chaconine: These glycoalkaloids are present in potatoes and can become toxic when potatoes turn green due to exposure to light. Green potatoes should be avoided or peeled before consumption.

c) Oxalates: Foods like spinach, rhubarb, and beet greens contain oxalates, which can contribute to kidney stone formation in susceptible individuals.

d) Lectins: Lectins are found in legumes like kidney beans and can be toxic when consumed raw or undercooked. Proper cooking destroys lectins.

e) Goitrogens: Cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli and cabbage, contain goitrogens, which can interfere with thyroid function when consumed in excess.

Q5. a) What is a food additive? Give the functional role of any two food additives.

Ans) Food additives are substances that are intentionally added to food during processing to perform specific functions. They serve various purposes, including improving the taste, texture, appearance, and shelf life of food products.

The functional roles of two common food additives:

a) Emulsifiers:

Functional Role: Emulsifiers, such as lecithin and mono- and diglycerides, are used to improve the stability of emulsions, which are mixtures of substances that don't naturally stay blended, like oil and water. They work by reducing the surface tension between oil and water, allowing them to mix evenly and preventing separation. Emulsifiers are essential in products like mayonnaise, salad dressings, and processed baked goods to ensure a smooth and uniform texture.

b) Antioxidants:

Functional Role: Antioxidants like vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and vitamin E (tocopherol) are added to food to prevent or slow down the oxidation of fats and oils. Oxidation can lead to the development of off-flavours, rancidity, and a decrease in the nutritional quality of the food. Antioxidants work by inhibiting or delaying the oxidative process, ensuring the freshness and stability of products like snacks, cereals, and oils.

Q5. b) Explain the role of Codex Alimentarius Commission in food regulations.

Ans) The Codex Alimentarius Commission is an international body established by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). It is responsible for setting international food standards and guidelines to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in food trade.

The Commission plays a crucial role in global food regulation in the following ways:

a) Setting Standards: The Codex Commission develops and establishes international food standards, guidelines, and codes of practice. These standards cover a wide range of food products, including cereals, fruits, vegetables, dairy, meat, and various food additives. They serve as a reference for national governments when formulating their food safety regulations.

b) Promoting Food Safety: Codex standards are designed to ensure the safety and quality of food products. They address issues such as food labelling, food additives, pesticide residues, and contaminants. By promoting uniformity in food safety standards, the Commission helps protect consumers from health risks associated with unsafe food.

c) Facilitating Trade: The Codex standards facilitate international trade by providing a common ground for countries to base their food safety regulations. When countries adhere to these standards, it becomes easier for them to export and import food products without facing arbitrary trade barriers.

d) Consumer Protection: Codex standards are developed with the primary objective of protecting the health of consumers. They set maximum residue limits for pesticides, maximum levels of contaminants, and guidelines for food labelling to provide consumers with accurate information about the food they consume.

e) Scientific Basis: The Codex Commission relies on scientific evidence and risk assessments to develop its standards. This ensures that the standards are based on the latest research and knowledge, making them more credible and effective in safeguarding public health.

Q6. a) What is adulteration ? What are reasons for adulterations?

Ans) Adulteration refers to the practice of adding inferior, harmful, or cheaper substances to a food or product to increase its quantity or make it appear better than it actually is. Adulteration is driven by various reasons, which can include economic gain, extending shelf life, and fraudulent practices.

Some common reasons for adulteration are:

a) Economic Gain: Adulteration is often carried out to reduce production costs and increase profits. By adding cheaper substances, manufacturers can produce goods at a lower cost while maintaining or even increasing the selling price. This results in higher profit margins.

b) Increasing Quantity: Adulterants are used to increase the overall quantity or volume of a product. This allows manufacturers to sell more units while keeping production costs low. For example, water might be added to milk to increase the volume without adding nutritional value.

c) Masking Inferior Quality: When a product is of substandard quality or has defects, adulteration can be employed to conceal these shortcomings. For instance, a lower-grade olive oil may be adulterated with a small quantity of higher-grade oil to enhance its appearance and taste.

d) Prolonging Shelf Life: Some adulterants can act as preservatives, extending the shelf life of products. While this may not necessarily harm consumers, it can be misleading when it makes products appear fresher or more durable than they actually are.

e) Fraud and Deception: Adulteration is often a fraudulent practice aimed at deceiving consumers. Products may be tampered with or misrepresented to make them appear healthier, purer, or of higher quality than they truly are.

Q6. b) Give any four adulterants giving their harmful effects.

Ans) Adulterants can have detrimental effects on consumer health. Here are four examples of adulterants and their harmful effects:

a) Melamine in Milk: Melamine is sometimes added to milk and dairy products to artificially boost the protein content. However, excessive melamine consumption can lead to kidney stones, kidney damage, and, in severe cases, even death. Notably, the 2008 Chinese milk scandal, in which melamine-adulterated milk caused numerous infant illnesses and deaths, highlighted the dangers of such adulteration.

b) Lead in Spices: Lead chromate has been found as an adulterant in spices and turmeric. Prolonged exposure to lead can lead to lead poisoning, which affects the nervous system, causes developmental issues in children, and has numerous other health consequences.

c) Methylene Blue in Fish: Methylene blue is used to enhance the appearance of fish and make them appear fresher. Ingesting methylene blue can result in methemoglobinemia, a condition that reduces the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity and can be harmful to health.

d) Pesticides in Fruits and Vegetables: Pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables can pose serious health risks if consumed. They can lead to acute poisoning or have long-term health effects, including cancer and developmental issues, if not properly washed or removed.

Q7. a) Explain the factors to be considered for ensuring safety of street foods.

Ans) Street food vendors play a significant role in many culinary traditions, offering convenient and affordable options. However, ensuring the safety of street foods is essential to protect consumers from foodborne illnesses.

Several factors should be considered:

a) Food Handling Practices: Street vendors must adhere to safe food handling practices, including proper handwashing, use of gloves, and avoiding cross-contamination. They should also use utensils and serving containers that are clean and well-maintained.

b) Ingredient Quality: The quality of ingredients used in street foods is crucial. Vendors should source fresh, high-quality ingredients and ensure that perishable items are stored at appropriate temperatures to prevent spoilage.

c) Storage and Transportation: Street food vendors must have adequate facilities for storing and transporting food safely. This includes refrigeration for perishable items and insulated containers to maintain proper temperatures during transit.

d) Cooking and Reheating: Cooking processes should be closely monitored to ensure that food is thoroughly cooked. Reheating should be done at the right temperature to kill any bacteria that may have grown during storage.

e) Cleanliness and Sanitation: Vendors should maintain a clean and sanitary cooking environment. Regular cleaning of equipment, utensils, and surfaces is vital. Adequate waste disposal mechanisms should be in place to prevent contamination.

f) Water Quality: Access to clean and safe water is critical. Water used for cooking, cleaning, and food preparation should meet the required quality standards.

Q7. b) Describe the basic criteria to be considered while selecting equipment and utensils of a catering establishment.

Ans) Criteria for Selecting Equipment and Utensils:

a) Material: Choose materials that are food-safe and easy to clean, such as stainless steel, glass, or food-grade plastics. Avoid materials that can react with acidic or alkaline foods, potentially causing contamination.

b) Durability: Equipment and utensils should be durable and able to withstand frequent use and cleaning. Invest in high-quality items that have a longer lifespan.

c) Size and Capacity: Select equipment and utensils that match the needs and scale of the catering establishment. Consider the volume of food to be prepared and served.

d) Ergonomics: Ensure that equipment is user-friendly and ergonomically designed. This promotes efficiency and reduces the risk of injuries among staff.

e) Maintenance and Cleaning: Choose items that are easy to maintain and clean. They should be designed with accessible parts to facilitate thorough cleaning and sanitation.

f) Safety Features: Equipment should have safety features to prevent accidents. For example, kitchen equipment should have safety interlocks and emergency shut-off switches.

Q7. c) What are the personal hygiene guidelines for employees of a food service unit?

Ans) Personal Hygiene Guidelines for Food Service Employees:

a) Handwashing: Employees should wash their hands frequently with soap and warm water, especially after using the restroom, handling raw food, touching their face or hair, or any other activity that may contaminate their hands.

b) Uniform and Protective Clothing: Employees should wear clean and appropriate uniforms, including aprons and hairnets or caps to prevent hair from falling into food.

c) Gloves: Use disposable gloves when handling food to prevent direct contact. Change gloves regularly and after any non-food-related tasks.

d) Nail and Skin Care: Keep nails short and clean to prevent the accumulation of dirt and bacteria. Employees should also avoid wearing artificial nails, which can harbour pathogens.

e) Jewellery and Accessories: Minimize jewellery and accessories, as they can trap dirt and bacteria. Only wear simple, clean, and non-intrusive items.

f) Illness Reporting: Employees should report any illnesses, particularly gastrointestinal issues, to their supervisor and should not handle food while sick.

g) No Smoking or Eating: Food service employees should refrain from smoking in food preparation areas and avoid eating in the kitchen to prevent contamination.

h) Proper Cough and Sneeze Etiquette: Employees should cover their mouth and nose with a tissue or their elbow when coughing or sneezing and wash their hands immediately.

i) Training and Education: Regularly train employees on personal hygiene practices and the importance of food safety.

Q8) Discuss the following:

Q8. a) Health status of food handlers and its impact on food safety.

Ans) The health status of food handlers is a critical factor in ensuring food safety. Food handlers who are in good health and follow proper hygiene practices contribute significantly to reducing the risk of foodborne illnesses. Conversely, those with poor health or failing to adhere to hygiene protocols can pose substantial risks to food safety.

Impact of Food Handlers' Health on Food Safety:

a) Food Contamination: Food handlers who are carriers of infectious diseases, such as hepatitis A or Salmonella, can unknowingly contaminate food during preparation. If they fail to wash their hands or wear gloves properly, pathogens can be transferred to food, leading to outbreaks of foodborne illnesses.

b) Foodborne Pathogens: Ill food handlers who handle food can transmit pathogens through respiratory droplets, sneezing, or coughing. These pathogens may settle on food, utensils, or surfaces, potentially causing contamination.

c) Reduced Alertness: Ill or fatigued food handlers may have reduced concentration and alertness, increasing the likelihood of accidents in the kitchen. Accidents can result in injuries, contamination, or cross-contamination.

d) Personal Hygiene: Food handlers are expected to follow strict personal hygiene practices, including handwashing, wearing clean uniforms, and maintaining proper grooming. Poor personal hygiene can lead to contamination of food and kitchen equipment.

e) Infectious Disease Outbreaks: Foodborne illness outbreaks are often linked to food handlers who are carriers of pathogens. The consequences can be severe, with widespread illnesses and potential legal consequences for the food establishment.

f) Loss of Reputation: Foodborne illness incidents can lead to a loss of reputation for the food establishment. Customers who experience foodborne illnesses are unlikely to return, and negative reviews or media coverage can harm the business.

Q8.b) The various cleaning agents and waste disposal used for sanitation in food industry.

Ans) Maintaining a clean and sanitary environment is fundamental in the food industry to prevent contamination, foodborne illnesses, and ensure compliance with food safety regulations. Various cleaning agents and waste disposal methods are employed for sanitation:

Cleaning Agents:

a) Detergents: Detergents are used to remove grease, dirt, and organic matter from surfaces and utensils. They help to break down and lift away food residues.

b) Sanitizers: Sanitizers, such as chlorine-based compounds, iodophors, or quaternary ammonium compounds, are used to kill bacteria and pathogens on surfaces after cleaning. They ensure the surfaces are safe for food contact.

c) Disinfectants: Disinfectants are used to kill a broader spectrum of microorganisms, including viruses and fungi. They are typically used in areas where there is a high risk of contamination.

d) Degreasers: Degreasers are specialized cleaning agents designed to remove heavy grease buildup in kitchen equipment, such as deep fryers and ovens.

Waste Disposal:

a) General Waste: Food establishments generate general waste, including non-recyclable and non-hazardous items like packaging, disposable utensils, and general kitchen waste. This waste should be properly bagged and disposed of according to local waste management guidelines.

b) Recycling: Recycling programs should be in place to segregate recyclable materials like glass, plastics, and paper. These materials can be sent to recycling facilities.

c) Organic Waste: Food scraps and organic waste should be separated and composted. Composting reduces the environmental impact and can be used for soil enrichment.

d) Hazardous Waste: Some food industry operations generate hazardous waste, such as used cooking oil or cleaning chemicals. These should be handled, stored, and disposed of following specific hazardous waste disposal regulations.

Q9. a) What is food packaging? What are various methods of packaging employed in the food industry? Enumerate, giving examples.

Ans) Food packaging refers to the process of enclosing food products in suitable containers, materials, or systems to protect, preserve, and present them for storage, distribution, and consumption. Packaging plays a critical role in maintaining the quality and safety of food products.

Various Methods of Food Packaging:

a) Primary Packaging: This is the packaging in direct contact with the food product. Examples include:

1) Cans: Used for packaging fruits, vegetables, and beverages.

2) Glass Containers: Common for products like sauces and jams.

3) Flexible Packaging: Includes pouches and sachets for snacks and condiments.

b) Secondary Packaging: These provide additional protection and branding to primary packages. Examples include:

1) Cardboard Boxes: Used for grouping and shipping multiple units of primary packages.

2) Shrink Wrap: Often used to bundle packages together.

c) Tertiary Packaging: These are used for transportation and distribution. Examples include:

1) Pallets: Used to stack and transport multiple secondary packages.

2) Stretch Wrap: Provides stability and protection to palletized goods during transit.

d) Active Packaging: These packaging systems interact with the food to extend shelf life or provide other benefits. Examples include:

1) Oxygen Scavengers: Remove oxygen to prevent oxidation in products like meat.

2) Ethylene Absorbers: Extend the freshness of fruits and vegetables.

e) Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP): Involves altering the gas composition within the package to slow down spoilage and maintain product quality. Examples include pre-packaged salads with reduced oxygen levels.

Q9. b) Briefly describe some toxicity hazards which result from interactions between packaging and food.

Ans) Toxicity Hazards from Packaging-Food Interactions:

a) Migration of Chemicals: Some packaging materials can release harmful substances into the food through migration. For example, certain plastics may leach plasticizers like phthalates or bisphenol A (BPA) into the food, which can have endocrine-disrupting effects.

b) Recycling Concerns: Some packaging materials are challenging to recycle or may release toxic byproducts during recycling processes. For instance, burning or incinerating certain plastics can release harmful fumes.

c) Contaminants from Inks and Labels: Inks and labels used on packaging can contain potentially harmful chemicals or heavy metals. These can migrate into the food, particularly in cases of direct contact or during high-heat processing.

d) Microbial Growth: Inadequate packaging materials or methods can lead to moisture retention, creating an environment conducive to microbial growth and mold development. This can result in food spoilage and safety concerns.

e) Allergen Cross-Contamination: In shared packaging and processing facilities, allergens from one product can cross-contaminate others, leading to allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

f) Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of packaging materials, especially non-biodegradable plastics, can contribute to environmental pollution and ecological hazards.

10. a) What do you understand by risk communication? List the various agencies which are responsible for the process of risk communication.

Ans) Risk communication is a crucial component of food safety management and public health. It involves the exchange of information and advice about risks related to food, health, or the environment between various stakeholders, including government agencies, scientists, industry, and the public. The primary objectives of risk communication are to inform, educate, and engage stakeholders, enabling them to make informed decisions and take appropriate actions to manage risks effectively.

Agencies Responsible for Risk Communication:

a) World Health Organization (WHO): WHO plays a global role in risk communication by providing guidelines, resources, and support to member countries for effective communication during public health emergencies.

b) Food and Drug Administration (FDA): In the United States, the FDA is responsible for ensuring that the communication of risks associated with food products is clear and accurate.

c) European Food Safety Authority (EFSA): EFSA provides scientific advice and risk assessments related to food safety and communicates these findings to European Union institutions, national authorities, and the public.

d) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): In the U.S., the CDC plays a critical role in communicating health risks, especially during disease outbreaks and emergencies.

e) National Food Safety Agencies: Each country typically has its own national food safety agency responsible for communicating food safety risks to its citizens. For instance, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) in India.

f) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs, such as the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) or Consumer Reports, often participate in risk communication by advocating for improved food safety practices and raising awareness among the public.

Q10. b) Discuss the need and relevance of HACCP in the context of food safety.

Ans) Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a systematic, science-based approach to identifying, evaluating, and controlling hazards in the food production process. It is an essential tool for ensuring food safety and preventing foodborne illnesses. HACCP is needed for the following reasons:

a) Prevention of Foodborne Hazards: HACCP is a proactive approach that helps identify potential hazards before they can affect the safety of food products. By implementing control measures at critical points in the production process, the risk of contamination and foodborne illnesses is significantly reduced.

b) Continuous Monitoring: HACCP requires constant monitoring of critical control points (CCPs). This real-time monitoring ensures that the process remains in control, and deviations can be corrected immediately, preventing the production of unsafe food.

c) Regulatory Compliance: Many countries and regions have made HACCP a legal requirement for food producers. Adhering to HACCP principles is essential for regulatory compliance and avoiding legal issues related to food safety.

d) Enhanced Consumer Confidence: Food businesses that implement HACCP demonstrate their commitment to food safety. This builds consumer trust and confidence in the safety and quality of their products.

e) Customization: HACCP is adaptable to various food processes and hazards, making it a versatile tool for addressing unique risks associated with different food products and processes.

Section B - OTQ (Objective Type Questions)

Q1) Explain the following briefly in 2-3 sentences each:

i) Probiotics

Ans) Probiotics are live microorganisms, often bacteria or yeast, that are beneficial for the human digestive system. They are commonly found in foods like yogurt and are also available as dietary supplements. Probiotics can help maintain a healthy balance of gut bacteria and promote overall digestive health.

Q1. ii) Facultative anaerobes

Ans) Facultative anaerobes are microorganisms, typically bacteria, that can thrive in both aerobic (oxygen-rich) and anaerobic (oxygen-deprived) environments. They have metabolic flexibility, allowing them to adapt to varying oxygen levels.

Q1. iii) Putrefaction

Ans) Putrefaction is a decomposition process in which organic matter, such as dead animal or plant material, is broken down by bacteria, producing foul-smelling compounds. It is one of the stages in the decay of organic material.

Q1. iv) Neurotoxin

Ans) A neurotoxin is a substance that is toxic to nerve cells or the nervous system. Exposure to neurotoxins can lead to neurological damage or dysfunction. Examples include botulinum toxin and lead.

Q1. v) Polychlorinated biphenyls

Ans) PCBs are a group of synthetic organic chemicals that were once used in various industrial applications, such as electrical insulation and coolant fluids. They are highly persistent in the environment and are known to be toxic and pose health risks.

Q1. vi) GRAS food additives

Ans) GRAS stands for "Generally Recognized As Safe." GRAS food additives are substances that have been evaluated by experts and are considered safe for consumption in food products. They do not require extensive safety testing before being added to food.

Q1. vii)Exhausted spices

Ans) Exhausted spices are spices that have lost their flavour and aromatic qualities due to repeated use or prolonged storage. They are no longer suitable for culinary use.

Q1. viii)Iodophors

Ans) Iodophors are chemical compounds that release iodine and are often used as antiseptics or disinfectants. They are effective against a wide range of microorganisms and are commonly used in healthcare and food processing.

Q1. ix) Shrink wrapping

Ans) Shrink wrapping is a packaging process in which a plastic film is tightly wrapped around an item, and then heat is applied to shrink and conform the film to the shape of the item, providing protection and sealing.

Q1. x) Acceptable Daily Intake

Ans) ADI is a measure used in toxicology and food safety to estimate the amount of a substance, typically a food additive or pesticide residue, that can be consumed daily over a lifetime without appreciable health risks. It is expressed in milligrams or micrograms per kilogram of body weight.

Q2) Differentiate between the following set of terms with examples :

i) Nutrition labelling and Nutrition claim

Ans) Comparison between Nutrition labelling and Nutrition claim:

Q2. ii) Prions and Dioxins

Ans) Comparison between Prions and Dioxins:

Q2. iii) Hazard and Toxicity

Ans) Comparison between Hazard and Toxin:

Q2. iv) Food Contaminations and Food Adulteration

Ans) Comparison between Food Contaminations and Food Adulteration:

Q2. v) Gram positive cell wall and Gram negative cell wall

Ans) Comparison between Gram positive cell wall and Gram negative cell wall:

Q3) Match the items in List I to items in List II :

Ans)