Assignment Code: MPCE-011/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: MPCE-011

Assignment Name: Psychopathology

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

All questions are compulsory.

Section-A

Answer the following questions in 1000 words each. 3x15=45

Q1) Discuss the causes and treatment of panic disorder.

Ans) The aetiology of panic disorder may be split in biological and psychological causes. The biological factors include biochemical abnormalities in the brain and genetic factors. The psychosocial factors are more concerned with understanding the changes in the individual’s perception which triggers panic attacks. They contain a variety of cognitive processes and learning-related components that might initiate or sustain panic attacks.

Biological Factors

1. Genetic Factors: Studies on twins and families have shown that panic disorder runs in families. While concordance is less common in fraternal twins, identical twins appear to have higher chances of developing panic disorder. It is yet unknown which specific genes cause panic disorder. However, there is some evidence to suggest that phobias and panic disorders may share some genetic characteristics.

2. Brain and Biochemical Abnormalities: There have been attempts to link the biochemistry of the brain with panic attacks. It has been noted that persons who already have panic disorder experience panic attacks when exposed to specific biochemicals, whilst others may not be affected by this. Thus, it has been suggested that there may be distinct neurological distinctions between individuals without panic disorder and those who do. Examples of such compounds that might be regarded as agents that cause panic are sodium lactate, carbon dioxide, coffee, etc.

There have been theories that different forms of panic attacks may be caused by different neurobiological reasons since the brain pathways connected to these drugs' actions are not all the same. Increased activity in the hippocampus and locus coeruleus, which monitor external and internal events and regulate brain reactions to them, are two brain mechanisms associated with panic attacks.

The brain's "fear network," which includes the amygdala, plays a key role in the fear response. Exceptional sensitivity in this area may lead to recurrent panic attacks. By speeding up heart rate and causing breathing issues, increased noradrenergic activity mimics cardiac abnormalities. Additionally, it has been hypothesised that those who suffer from panic disorder may have benzodiazepine receptor defects, which aid in reducing anxiety. In this regard, the GABA neurotransmitter may play a significant role.

Psychological Factors

1. Learning Factor: Panic episodes have been attempted to be explained by learning theorists as learned events, more especially as responses to conditioned stimuli. You are already aware of how conditioning works and how a seemingly neutral stimulus can develop meaning in order to elicit a response. Consider Maya's situation as an illustration. She experienced her first panic episode while riding the subway. As a result, the train's surroundings become the conditioned stimuli, and Maya begins to worry that her next panic episode might also happen in the crowded train. As a result, the original learning is strengthened and gains vigour through reinforcing in a cyclic pattern. This justification is often referred to as "fear of terror."

2. Cognitive Factors: The cognitive approach to treating panic attacks focuses on how to evaluate internal and environmental signs that could start an attack. The cognitive approach further confirms that a catastrophic interpretation may be attached to the physiological sensation, whereas the learning method emphasises the oversensitivity to bodily stimuli.

However, there seems to be growing evidence that suggests certain persons have a particular cognitive orientation that makes them more receptive to considering specific cues as panic attack triggers than others.

Treatment Of Panic Disorder

Pharmacology, psychotherapy, or a combination of the two approaches may be used to treat panic disorder. In order to treat panic episodes, benzodiazepine tranquillizers are frequently employed. But these also have the drawback of being addicting. Panic attacks can be effectively treated with antidepressants like SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) and tricyclics.

Although these medications, especially SSRIs, don't have the same instant calming impact as the benzodiazepine family of medications, they are less likely to cause addiction and have superior long-term therapeutic outcomes. Even if extrapyramidal side effects like dry mouth are sporadic, most people can endure them more easily. Additionally helpful in treating panic disorder is psychotherapy. For self-management, you might instruct the patient in breathing exercises and relaxation methods. These methods include controlling your breathing and gradually relaxing your body's muscles, working your way up from one extremity to the next, in order to regulate and control your internal cues of fear.

As an additional option, you can use the cognitive approach to recognise false automatic ideas and analyse them in the context of reality orientation. For instance, you might ask the patient to consider the worst that could happen to her and assess the likelihood of it happening in reality. You can also request that she recognise the cues that set them off and get practise separating them from the bodily reactions that happen right away. For the long-term maintenance of the cure in the case of panic disorder, it has been proposed that cognitive method is more beneficial than medication.

Q2) Discuss the etiology and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Ans) You now understand that not everyone who experiences stressful circumstances goes on to get PTSD. Here, you can read more about the biological, psychological, and social components.

Biological Factors

The temperamental variables that may contribute to the development of a weak personality are among the biological factors. Studies on identical twins have suggested that weak personalities may run in families. In addition, being exposed to trauma may trigger the noradrenergic system. The amount of norepinephrine rises as a result. Exaggerated startle reactions and increased emotional arousal may follow from this.

Psychological Factors

Although psychoanalytic, behavioural, and cognitive explanations of PTSD have been made, none of them have been able to fully explain why some people experience PTSD while others do not. Personality and life experiences appear to be crucial factors in this regard. Also keep in mind that everyone eventually reaches a breaking point. Some people succumb to symptoms sooner than others. Additionally, it has been noted that the trauma's severity directly correlates with the degree of the symptoms. For instance, the signs of combat stress are directly correlated with the death toll.

1. Multiple risk factors for PTSD include a vulnerable disposition and traumatic life situations. Some of these include being a woman, separating from parents young, having a psychiatric condition in the family, and having anxiety or mood disorders already. People are occasionally subjected to many traumas.

2. Psychoanalysis Approach: This method postulates that people either intentionally or unconsciously repress the distressing recollections of the traumatic incident. The ego's battle to incorporate the experience into the personality's pre-existing structure is what leads to PTSD. PTSD symptoms frequently signify an ego compromise gone wrong.

3. Approach based on the learning theory: This strategy assumes that PTSD is the outcome of traditional conditioning. This is essentially an avoidance reaction. An individual who has experienced a horrible railroad accident would never again board a train due to the terrifying memories associated with the incident.

4. The cognitive approach makes the assumption that someone who has experienced trauma will use a poor coping technique. The person with PTSD frequently uses an emotion-focused coping strategy rather than a problem-focused one. Additionally, they frequently accept responsibility for mistakes that cause survivor guilt. Additionally, trauma victims' information processing may be skewed. The person's sensitivity to signs that the event is about to happen has not changed. Uncontrollable intrusive memories and thoughts make it easy for the person to recognise certain circumstances that trigger the recollection.

5. According to the existential paradigm, traumatization skews one's understanding of life's purpose. Through our experiences, each of us forms a variety of assumptions about relationships and life. For instance, we might anticipate assisting a baby who was in need. Rarely only are these expectations not realised during traumatic experiences, but occasionally the complete opposite occurs.

Socio-Cultural Factors

When the warriors are committed to their mission and have high group morale, PTSD symptoms have been seen to be less frequent and less severe. Additionally, severe symptoms can be prevented if one is put in a supportive setting soon after the traumatic experience. In fact, the entire goal of army training is to create a culture that celebrates and promotes the combative mentality. PTSD would be less prevalent in this situation. On the other side, in cases of rape, society frequently places the responsibility on the victim, increasing the likelihood of symptoms. The person can cope with the situation if they have adequate social support and have the traumatic experiences assimilated into their culture.

Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Numerous psychoactive medicines may be administered to trauma victims right away to help them cope with their fear. It has been discovered that tranquillizers and antidepressants have some impact. SSRIs in particular have had great success. In addition to medications, short-term crisis counselling may also be required during these trying periods. In this situation, you must be proactive in interacting with the people, providing information, offering support, and providing as much clarification as you can.

In the long run, nevertheless, you must offer strategies for helping the person incorporate the experiences into their regular lives. The key to all methods is to progressively expose the subject to the trauma's memories while also teaching her coping mechanisms. The person typically loses confidence and sense of security in the world after the occurrence or set of events. There are moments when one's dread of losing their stability rules. Your first duty as a therapist would be to inform the patient about the nature and typical symptoms of PTSD while emphasising that they can be managed.

PTSD has been studied extensively since World War II and the Vietnam War. Narcosynthesis was used to rehabilitate combat-weary soldiers during World War II. To make the subject drowsy, sodium pentathol (truth serum) was administered to them. Then, when questioned about the trauma, she frequently gave a detailed and appalling account. A discussion of the terrible occurrences started as soon as the patient awoke. The goal was to convince the patient that the incidents are no longer a threat because they are in the past.

Robert Jay Lifton of Yale University founded a rap ensemble in 1971 after collaborating with Vietnam War veterans. The rap ensemble addressed the veterans' unresolved rage and remorse. Their guilt stemmed from the actions they were required to take in order to fight guerilla warfare. They were also incensed at their own government for leaving them in such a precarious situation. The combatants came together in the rap groups created as self-help groups to discuss their experiences and have a space to process the pain.

Q3) Discuss the clinical features and etiology of dissociative disorders.

Ans) The essence of Dissociative Disorders is frequently oversimplified and overstated. Dissociating a person's actions from conscious consciousness is referred to as dissociation. Cognitive psychology has recently focused on non-conscious processes, while psychoanalysis has always stressed the illogical parts of the human mind. Three main dissociative disorders are discussed here. Which are:

Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue

1. Dissociative Amnesia: Memory loss is referred to as amnesia. Amnesia may seem to be a way for people to mentally escape from stress. But it could also be a sign of a lot of biological illnesses. The DSM IV-TR defines dissociative amnesia as a disruption in one or more life episodes or an inability to remember important events. Dissociative amnesia may be restricted to a certain time period or may be pervasive across a significant portion of a person's life. It can be selective, which means that certain events might be missed. In this case, nothing past a specific point is recalled. It can also be continuous. Amnesia that is localised and selective is more frequent.

2. Dissociative Fugue: The word fugue indicates to run away. A dissociative fugue is an abrupt departure from home or employment. Amnesia frequently occurs along with this. The person suffering from a fugue may appear puzzled about who she is and may even adopt a new identity. If you check into her case history, you might find that the fugue happened following a stressful occurrence that was probably hard to cope while remaining in one spot. You are aware that people often wander off even with organic diseases like Alzheimer's. Dissociative fugue is distinguished from wandering in Alzheimer's disease by the desire to flee as well as the absence of other dementia symptoms.

Depersonalisation Disorder

As if what is taking place is not real, or as if you are witnessing the series of events from afar. The human mind uses this technique instinctively as a way to tolerate extreme discomfort. Depersonalization refers to the sensation of not being oneself. Derealization refers to the feeling that what is happening is not genuine. Even while anyone can experience this in extreme circumstances, if a person has these experiences frequently and repeatedly, you might consider diagnosing her with depersonalization disease.

The person with this disorder feels alienated from both her physical self and her own thought processes. However, reality testing is still in place, meaning delusions and hallucinations don't happen. Strangely, the person feels removed from both internal and external occurrences. One can visualise themselves floating above their bodies. The flow of existence typically has a dreamy quality, and one could be perplexed by the environment's isolation and strangeness.

Dissociative Identity Disorder

The tale of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is the best-known illustration of Dissociative Identity Disorder. One was a killer, while the other was a philanthropist. What would you think if you went to bed wearing your nightgown and woke up the next morning in something entirely different, your shoes covered in mud? You are unaware of your activities last night. Possibly you have a separate personality at night if it continues for days.

Multiple Personalities was the previous term for what is now known as Dissociative Identity Disorder. According to DSM IV-TR, for a person to be diagnosed with dissociative identity disorder, she must have at least two distinct ego states that, for various periods of time, have total control over her thoughts, feelings, and behaviour. These alters occasionally communicate with one another, but more often than not, at least one alter is not aware of the existence of the other.

Memory gaps are a common indicator. The various alters are real, reoccurring phenomena that are not brought forth by any pharmaceutical substance. These alters might be of a distinct or even opposing character; they might interact or dress in a different way. The host or original personality frequently functions at the surface while the subordinate alter operates at a covert level. This subordinate alter is referred to as co-conscious in such circumstances. This alter gradually asserts itself before eventually seizing control from the host.

Aetiology Of Dissociative Disorders

1) Biological Factors: Similar to somatoform disorder, physiologic elements in dissociative disorders are similarly of secondary relevance. At most, there may be some hereditary component to a weak personality with higher suggestibility.

2) Psychological Factors: Dissociative disorders have their roots in psychological factors.

a)     Psychoanalytic Approach: The psychoanalytic theory emphasises how forgetfulness and fugue are examples of repression and denial defence mechanisms in action. The ego may turn to repression when some unconscious conflicts are highly painful and there is no feasible way out, rendering the content of the conflict unavailable, at least temporarily. Isolation of emotion and event is a crucial defence mechanism present in all dissociative disorders. Most obviously, this occurs in depersonalization disorder.

b)     Behavioural Approach: According to the learning approach, dissociation is a person's attempt to avoid experiencing intense stress. As the person is relieved of stress, this separation is strengthened. They may occasionally self-hypnotize to enter the disconnected states.

c)     Cognitive Approach: According to the cognitive viewpoint, selective memory problems exist. Typically, only the person's autobiographical or episodic memory is impaired, with the semantic memory remaining largely unaffected. According to certain case reports, only the explicit memory is reportedly disrupted, leaving the implicit memory intact.

3) Cultural and Social Factors: Dissociative phenomena like possession and trance are tolerated or even encouraged in some societies. Identity disturbances are strengthened by the culture and receive support there. There have been some hints that non-western societies are more likely to experience dissociated identity in the form of spirit possession.

4) Vulnerable Personality and Stressful Life Events: There is strong evidence that people with dissociative disorders experienced terrible trauma when they were young. Some had endured sexual assault, while others had been subjected to physical violence or coerced into incestuous relationships. PTSD is frequently accompanied by dissociative disorders following natural or man-made disasters.

Section-B

Answer the following questions in 400 words each. 5x5=25

Q1) Explain the purpose and approaches to the classification of psychopathology.

Ans) We require a classification system in order to categorise the psychological diseases. The process of creating categories and placing individuals into those categories based on their characteristics is referred to as categorization. Taxonomy is referred to as classification in a scientific context. Nomenclature is another term for names and labels that may be used to define a certain condition, such as schizophrenia or depression. All sciences are based on classification. Scientists cannot exchange information with one another, and our understanding will not develop if we are unable to categorise and identify things, events, or behaviours.

Researchers would not be able to share their results with one another and make decisions regarding these conditions without classifying and organising patterns of abnormal behaviour. Different types of therapy or medications work better on some psychiatric diseases than others. Classification aids in behaviour prediction for clinicians. Finally, classification enables researchers to pinpoint populations that exhibit comparable anomalous behaviour patterns. For instance, by categorising groups of people as depressed, researchers may be able to find commonalities that assist explain the causes of depression. The classification of psychopathology serves the five main goals listed below:

1. Communication

2. Control

3. Comprehension

4. Distinction

5. Prognosis/prediction

Approaches to the Classification of Psychopathology

Three methods or procedures are employed by psychologists to categorise disorders:

1. Categorical Approach: The first psychiatrist to categorise psychological diseases from a biological or medical perspective was Kraepelin. In terms of physical disorders, Kraepelin has a single set of causative variables that do not cross over with those of other disorders. Every member of the category or group must satisfy one defining criterion, such as schizophrenia.

2. Dimensional Approach: The second tactic is a dimensional one, in which we list the patient's various cognitions, moods, and behaviours and rate them on a scale.

3. Prototypical Approach: An alternative to the first two methods for organising and categorising behavioural problems is the third method. It is referred to as a prototype strategy. In addition to specifying some non-essential differences that do not necessarily affect the classification, it also defines some important aspects of a condition. By categorising the condition using various potential characteristics or traits, every candidate must satisfy some (but not all) of them in order to be included in that category.

Q2) Describe the types of delusions. Differentiate between delusions and hallucinations.

Ans) Delusions are divided into several categories:

1. Bizarre Delusion: A bizarre delusion is one that is extremely odd and wholly improbable; an illustration of this would be the hallucination that an alien has abducted the victim's brain.

2. Non-Bizarre Delusion: A delusion that, while untrue, is at least plausible, such as when the affected individual incorrectly thinks he is constantly being watched by the authorities.

3. Mood-Congruent Delusion: Any illusion that contains ideas typical of a manic or depressive state.

4. Mood-Neutral Delusion: A false belief unrelated to the emotional state of the patient.

5. Delusion of Control: This is a mythical notion that one's thoughts, feelings, impulses, or behaviour are under the direction of someone else, a group of people, or some other outside force.

6. Nihilistic Delusion: A person suffering from this kind of hallucination can think incorrectly that the world is ending.

7. Delusional Jealousy: This hallucination causes a person to mistakenly think their partner or lover is conducting an affair.

8. Delusion of Guilt or Sin: This is a deluded , false sense of regret or guilt.

9. Delusion of Mind Being Read: The delusion that one's thoughts may be read by others.

10. Delusion of Reference: Falsely believing that unimportant comments, happenings, or items in one's environment have personal significance or value.

11. Erotomania: A hallucination in which a person thinks another person loves them.

12. Grandiose Delusion: A person believes he possesses unique qualities, skills, or abilities. Sometimes the person may genuinely think they are a famous person or fictional figure.

13. Persecutory Delusion: These delusions, which are the most prevalent, revolve around the idea of being watched, harassed, cheated, poisoned, or drugged, as well as conspired against, spied on, attacked, or prevented from achieving goals.

14. Religious Delusion: Any misconception that has a spiritual or religious undertone. These could exist with other delusions, such grandiose ones.

15. Somatic Delusion: A hallucination that has to do with how the body works, how it feels, or how it looks. The common misconception is that the body is ill, abnormal, or altered in some way.

16. Delusions of Parasitosis (DOP) or Delusional Parasitosis: A delusion in which one feels infested with an insect, bacteria, mite, spiders, lice, fleas, worms, or other organisms. Affected individuals may also report being repeatedly bitten. In some cases, entomologists are asked to investigate cases of mysterious bites. Sometimes physical manifestations may occur including skin lesions.

17. Delusions of Poverty: The person is adamant that he is incapable of handling money. Even though this kind of hallucination is less prevalent now, it's interesting to note that it was most prevalent when there was no state assistance.

Hallucinations

Person experiences hallucinations. Any sensory modality can experience hallucinations, however some etiological circumstances are more likely to cause a particular type of hallucination. The presence of burnt rubber or other unpleasant scents in olfactory hallucinations is particularly diagnostic of temporal lobe epilepsy. Depending on the etiological variables, external circumstances, nature, and emphasis of the injury delivered to the central nervous system, and the reactive response to impairment, hallucinations can range from being basic and unformed to being extremely sophisticated and organised.

Q3) Explain the symptoms and clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Ans) Obsessive and compulsive are two words that you must be familiar with because they are used frequently. But you must learn right away to differentiate between the technical and layman's meanings of obsession and compulsion. In common parlance, the word "obsession" refers to the state of being preoccupied with a certain idea; for example, being preoccupied with your appearance, your daughter's academic performance, or your girlfriend's whereabouts when she is away. You also mention having an obsession with a certain type of art, as well as with automobiles, foreign stamps, weapons, and rifles.

Compulsion refers to being forced or compelled to perform an action. In everyday speech, we can refer to it as being forced from the outside or the inside. But keep in mind that these are not the acceptable ways to use the phrases compulsion and obsession. They are only fancy terms and not symptoms of a condition as long as you are content and in control of your thoughts, as well as long as they are not bothersome despite your best efforts to push them away. Technically speaking, fixation refers to unwanted ideas, images, and urges that persist despite a person's best efforts to suppress them.

Compulsion is when you feel forced from yourself to carry out specific ritualistic behaviours because you are worried that something bad will happen to you if you don't. Obsessions, according to the DSM IV-TR, are recurring and persistent urges, ideas, or pictures that are felt as invasive and cause a great deal of anxiety. These ideas frequently have no bearing on the current state of affairs and are unrelated to them. The person tries to get rid of these thoughts after gaining understanding, but frequently is unsuccessful.

If you examine the content of the obsessive thoughts, you might find unusual fears of contamination, fears of harming oneself or one's own loved ones, themes related to religion, themes related to sexuality, particularly in the unacceptable forms, wishes for bad things to happen to other people, and doubts regarding whether one has completed tasks successfully. When particularly violent and sexual ideas predominate, the individual does not want to think about these things and believes that she is "evil." But she can't shake the thoughts from her head. There are only a few main categories of obsessive behaviours. These include hoarding, sorting, checking, counting, repeating, and cleaning.

While obsessions and compulsions usually coexist, this is not always the case. Sometimes one obsession or compulsion may take the lead. Obsessions and compulsions eat up a lot of one's daily schedule and slow down the course of one's entire life. Some people's rituals consume the entire day, making it impossible for them to do anything else. When you rub and scrub your skin excessively and with certain materials, it can sometimes be unhealthy and leave lesions on your body. Additionally, the majority of persons have several obsessions and compulsions.

Q4) Explain the symptoms of bipolar disorder.

Ans) At least one episode of mania distinguishes bipolar illness from serious depression. Depending on the major characteristics of a certain episode, it is categorised as manic, depressive, or mixed. Individuals are termed to have only Unipolar mood disorder if they only experience one of these moods. Since experiencing manic symptoms on its own is quite uncommon, practically everyone with unipolar mood disorders experiences unipolar depression. An individual is said to have a bipolar disorder if they undergo episodes of mania and depression back-to-back. People with bipolar disorder have periods of time when they experience unusually elevated and, frequently, abnormally depressive states in a way that interferes with functioning.

Depressive Episode

Depressed mood, anhedonia, psychomotor slowness, as well as emotions of pessimism and guilt, are all characteristics of major depression. Sleep and food consumption frequently rise. In psychotic depression, delusions of guilt and self-loathing are frequent, and some patients also have hallucinations. The depressive phase of bipolar disorder is characterised by persistent feelings of sadness, anxiety, guilt, anger, loneliness, or hopelessness, as well as disturbances in sleep and appetite, fatigue, and loss of interest in typically enjoyable activities. It can also cause problems with concentration, social awkwardness or anxiety, irritability, chronic pain, lack of motivation, and morbid suicidal ideation.

Manic Episode

Common symptoms of bipolar disorder include increased energy and a diminished need for sleep. Speaking under pressure and having rushing thoughts are both possible. A manic person has a short attention span and is susceptible to distractions. Judgment may become compromised, causing sufferers to overspend or act in ways that are extremely out of character for them. They might abuse alcohol, other depressants, cocaine, other stimulants, or sleeping drugs in particular. They might start acting aggressively, intolerably, or intrusively. People could feel powerless or unstoppable.

Hypomanic Episode

A less severe kind of mania known as a hypomanic episode involves a separate episode lasting four days or longer and being significantly different from the patient's typical nondepressed mood. A mild to moderate form of mania, hypomania is typically characterised by optimism, pressure in speech and activity, and a diminished desire for sleep. In general, hypomania does not impair function the same way as mania does. In fact, many hypomanic individuals are more productive than usual. Some people are more creative than others, while some people are impulsive and irritable.

Mixed Episode

The criteria for both mania and depression are satisfied in a mixed episode, which combines depressed and manic or hypomanic symptoms. For instance, during the height of mania, patients may briefly get tearful, while during a depressed episode, their thoughts may race. The switch often corresponds to circadian factors. The entire episode is mixed in at least one-third of bipolar patients. A dysphorically aroused mood, crying, disrupted sleep, racing thoughts, grandiosity, psychomotor restlessness, suicidal ideation, persecutory delusions, auditory hallucinations, indecision, and bewilderment are typical manifestations. Dysphoric mania is the name of this manifestation.

Q5) Discuss the etiology of schizophrenia.

Ans) Numerous theories have been developed, refuted, or updated about the causes of schizophrenia. The language used in medical model research on schizophrenia is scientific. According to these research, significant contributing components include genetics, prenatal development, early environment, neurobiology, and psychological and social processes.

Genetics

An individual may be diagnosed with schizophrenia as a result of a combination of genetic susceptibility and environmental variables. According to research, several genes interact to create a multifactorial genetic susceptibility to schizophrenia. According to studies, the phenotypic is influenced by genetics but not genetically defined.

Prenatal

It is commonly known that obstetric issues or occurrences enhance the likelihood that a kid may later develop schizophrenia, even though they generally represent a general risk factor with a negligible impact. However, the elevated average risk is consistently seen, and such occurrences might mitigate the effects of genetic or other environmental risk factors. The exact issues or occurrences that are most closely related to schizophrenia as well as the ways in which they have an impact are constantly being researched.

Fetal Growth

One of the most consistent findings, showing slower foetal growth perhaps mediated by genetic factors, is lower than usual birth weight. However, almost any item that has a negative impact on the foetus will have an impact on growth rate, hence the link has been characterised as being not very instructive regarding causation.

Hypoxia

Since the 1970s, there has been speculation that brain hypoxia before, during, or right after birth may be a risk factor for the emergence of schizophrenia. In recent years, research in animal models, molecular biology, and epidemiology has shown that hypoxia is important to schizophrenia. Such findings give hypoxia impact a great deal of weight. When some unexplained genes are present, foetal hypoxia has been linked to a smaller hippocampus, which in turn has been linked to schizophrenia.

Other Factors

A growing body of research is being done on a variety of prenatal risk factors, including intrauterine starvation, prenatal infection, and prenatal stress. The danger of a poor prenatal environment has also been connected to maternal-Fetal rhesus or genetic incompatibility.

Infections

Numerous viral infections in utero or in childhood have been linked to a higher risk of schizophrenia later in life. There has long been research on influenza as a potential cause. According to a 1988 study, people who were exposed to the Asian flu as second-trimester foetuses had a higher risk of developing schizophrenia in adulthood. A Japanese study likewise found no evidence to back up a connection between schizophrenia and being born following a flu epidemic.

Childhood Antecedents

The antecedents of schizophrenia are typically subtle, and people who will eventually acquire schizophrenia do not typically belong to a subgroup that is easily distinguished, making it difficult to pinpoint a particular cause. Average group deviations from the norm could point either greater or lower performance.

Section-C

Answer the following questions in 50 words each. 10x3=30

Q1) Anxiety and Defence Mechanisms

Ans) Many of the ego defences that Sigmund Freud identified are mentioned in his written works. These concepts were refined and expanded upon by his daughter Anna Freud, who also added 10 of her own. Additional ego defences have also been added by many psychoanalysts. Unconscious psychological defence mechanisms are employed by a person to shield them from worry brought on by undesirable thoughts or feelings. In order to help us deal with a circumstance, defensive mechanisms, according to Freudian theory, involve a distortion of reality in women.

Q2) Tick disorders

Ans) A tic is a condition when a bodily part continually moves fast, abruptly, and uncontrollably. Any area of the body, including the face, shoulders, hands, and legs, might experience tics. For brief intervals, they can be stopped willingly. Vocal tics are uncontrollable sounds that are made. The majority of tics are small and barely perceptible. They can, however, have a negative impact on a child's life in a variety of ways and are occasionally severe and common.

Q3) Hypochondriasis

Ans) Fear of physical illness is a hallmark of hypochondriasis. You may have met people who believe they have serious illnesses like cancer or heart issues. However, investigations show that there is no organic pathology present. While many of us occasionally interpret physical discomfort as an indication of a major issue, the hypochondriac is adamant that the disease is present.

Q4) Seasonal affective disorder

Ans) A specifier is seasonal affective disorder, commonly referred to as "winter depression" or "winter blues". Some people's depressive episodes start in the fall or winter and end in the spring, following a seasonal rhythm. When at least two episodes occur only during the colder months of a two-year period or longer, with no other episodes occurring, the diagnosis is determined. It is a frequent misconception that persons who live in higher latitudes have more seasonal affective disorder because they get less sunlight exposure throughout the winter.

Q5) Stimulants and depressants

Ans) The central nervous system's activity are reduced by depressants. Their primary effects are to reduce physiological arousal and encourage relaxation. Stimulants are the psychoactive chemicals that are used the most frequently. Cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine, and caffeine are included in this group. In contrast to depressants, stimulants boost our vigour and attentiveness. Many stimulant addicts describe a dysphoric condition after several weeks of withdrawal, defined by anhedonia and/or anxiety, but it may not reach the symptom severity requirements to be classified as DSM-IV Major Depression.

Q6) Paranoid personality disorder

Ans) Irrational mistrust and suspicion of other people are characteristics of paranoid personality disorder. Personality traits can be "active," leading to animosity, disputes, lawsuits, and occasionally even violence or destructive behaviour, or "passive," where the person faces the world from a posture of deference and embarrassment. An individual with paranoid personality disorder thinks that others despise him and will bring him down but is unable to stop it.

Q7) Borderline personality disorder

Ans) Instable interpersonal interactions, behaviour, attitude, and self-image are traits of borderline personalities. They are more likely to experience abrupt and intense mood swings, tumultuous relationships, and unpredictable, frequently destructive behaviour. These personalities struggle greatly with their sense of self and frequently have extreme worldviews, seeing everything as either black or white. They frequently develop strong personal bonds only to hastily sever them over an alleged crime.

Q8) Postpartum psychosis

Ans) Postpartum psychosis is a type of transient psychotic disease that can occur in some vulnerable women as a result of the significant hormonal changes that occur during pregnancy and the immediate postpartum period. Unfortunately, postpartum ailments are frequently misdiagnosed and treated incorrectly. Postpartum psychosis is frequently a factor when a mother kills her child or commits suicide.

Q9) Positive and negative symptoms

Ans) Positive symptoms of schizophrenia include any alteration in behaviour or thought, such as delusions or hallucinations, and negative symptoms include a person's apparent withdrawal from the world around them, lack of interest in routine social interactions, and a tendency to appear emotionless and flat.

Q10) Detoxification

Ans) The use of sedatives or antianxiety drugs is not advised because inhalant intoxication can get worse if the patient uses them again. Detoxification is also advised for individuals who are experiencing inhalant-induced anxiety. If the patient is unable to sustain sobriety, the doctor should look into residential treatment programmes, which can range in length from three to twelve months. After passing out or going crazy from chemical inhalation, most inhalant abusers receive the majority of their medical care in nearby emergency rooms.