Assignment Code: BANE-141/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: BANE-141

Assignment Name: Physiological Anthropology

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Total Marks: 100

There are three Sections in the Assignment. All questions are compulsory.

Assignment –I

Answer any two of the following questions in about 500 words each. 20x2

a) Discuss Energy systems.

Ans) A significant amount of ATP cannot be stored by the human body, so it must constantly be re-synthesised. There are three energy systems that are discussed that either work aerobically (with oxygen present) or anaerobically (without oxygen) in the resynthesis of ATP.

The Phosphagen System

No matter how intense the activity, the body first uses its stored ATP for a brief period of time—about three seconds—to provide energy when a person performs it. Creatine phosphate, also known as phosphocreatine, or PCr, is used from the muscle cell's reserve to top off the ATP level. Creatine kinase, an enzyme, breaks down the phosphate group of creatine phosphate and transfers it to ADP, which is created as a result of ATP hydrolysis, to create more ATP (Figure 9). The ATP-PC (Adenosine Triphosphate Phosphocreatine) system, also known as the phosphagen system, is made up of ATP and creatine phosphate. It is a non-oxygenating process that takes place in the cytoplasm of cells.

Glycolysis

The series of biochemical processes known as glycolysis, also known as the lactic acid system, converts glucose into pyruvate. Two ATPs are used to break down each glucose molecule, but four ATPs are also produced, so there is a net gain of two ATPs. Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that takes place in the cytoplasm of cells, much like the ATP-PC system. Lactate is produced when pyruvate is broken down without oxygen. But lactate dehydrogenase quickly converts it back to pyruvate, which can then be used to fuel additional anaerobic metabolism.

Aerobic System

The most intricate of the three metabolic energy systems is the aerobic system. The process of re-synthesising ATP is the slowest because it depends on oxygen, but it provides a steady supply of energy for longer periods of time. Thus, it serves as the body's main energy source when at rest or engaged in low- to moderate-intensity activities. In addition to using carbohydrates as fuel, proteins and fats are also used. Proteins and fats are converted into amino acids, carbohydrates into pyruvate (the by-product of glycolysis), and fats into fatty acids. Following the formation of acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) by these nutrient products via various metabolic pathways, mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) or Kreb's cycle is activated.

Acetyl-CoA is completely converted to CO2 in this pathway, which also results in the production of ATPs and the reduction of the electron carrier coenzymes NAD+ and FAD to NADH and FADH2, respectively. Through the electron transport chain, these reduced electron carriers themselves are oxidised (a chemical reaction involving the loss of an electron), resulting in the production of ATP and water. Oxidative phosphorylation is the term for this action.

A group of proteins embedded in the inner wall of mitochondria make up the electron transport chain. These proteins move the electron from the matrix to the intermembrane space that was released by NADH and FADH2. As a result, a gradient of hydrogen ions forms, and ATP synthesis is facilitated by the movement of hydrogen ions from low concentration to high concentration areas. The ability to resynthesise more ATP than the anaerobic metabolic system is provided by the aerobic system, which includes the Kreb's or TCA cycle and electron transport chain. In actuality, more ATPs are produced during fat metabolism than during the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins.

b) What do you understand by impact of long-term exercise on physiologic characteristics based on age? Discuss

Ans) When significant differences in physiological function between children and adults are scaled to absolute values to account for variations in body size, many of these differences tend to disappear. There are some noteworthy exceptions, though, like the rate of identical absolute work done on a bicycle ergometer, where children and adults reported roughly the same metabolic cost, or VO2 demands. But they responded to such demands in different ways.

Despite working at the same rate as adults, children's stroke volumes were lower due to their smaller hearts. Their heart rate increased in a compensatory manner, though it may not have been sufficient to increase cardiac output (Bar-Or 1983). As a result, to compensate for the decreased cardiac output, the a-VO2 difference increases to reach the same VO2. The difference between the oxygen content of arterial and venous blood is known as the a-VO2, also referred to as the "arteriovenous oxygen difference."

In litres per minute, VO2 max is expressed. It rises for boys between the ages of 6 and 18 and for girls between the ages of 6 and 14, before plateauing. When expressed relative to body weight, i.e., millilitres per kilogramme per minute, it typically remains stable for boys but gradually declines for girls in the aforementioned age range. In a study of elite male and female endurance runners, the difference in their aerobic capacity was significantly less when compared to boys and girls in general, making varying patterns of physical activity the most likely cause for this variation. The deteriorating physiological functioning associated with ageing is closely linked to general inactivity. As people get older, their maximum heart rate and maximum stroke volume gradually decrease. Older adults typically have lower VO2 max than younger adults because their maximal cardiac output is lower.

Deteriorating physiological function, which is typically associated with ageing, is caused by decreased physical activity as well as the ageing process itself. Even a previously sedentary older adult can maintain good levels of cardiovascular, metabolic, and VO2 max functions by embracing an active lifestyle or by increasing physical activity. Similar encouraging outcomes in skeletal muscle function were also attained. For instance, a ten-week training programme of progressive resistance exercise carried out by Fiatarone and his colleagues in 1994 led to a 113 percent increase in the strength of men and women with a mean age of 87.1 years. The participants' ability to climb stairs, gait speed, and levels of spontaneous activity all improved, according to the study, along with their cross-sectional thigh muscle area. By boosting their endurance and strength, older people may be better able to lead independent lives.

Assignment –II

Answer any two questions in about 250 words each. 10x2

a. Write short notes on any two of the following

i. Respiratory system in Exercise

Ans) The respiratory system is typically not a limiting factor in most athletic competitions, but in endurance sports, it becomes crucial for achieving maximum performance. We will discuss the structure and operation of the human respiratory system for a better understanding.

Alveolar Ventilation and Oxygen Utilisation during Exercise

At rest, an adult man uses approximately 250 ml of oxygen per minute. However, for men, this rises to roughly 3600 ml/min, 4000 ml/min, and 5000 ml/min in untrained adults, trained athletes, and marathon runners, respectively, under maximal exercise conditions. There is a linear relationship between oxygen consumption and total alveolar ventilation at various intensities of exercise. From the resting state to the peak exercise capacity, both values in trained athletes increase by roughly 20 times.

Effect of Training on VȮ2max

Maximum oxygen uptake per minute during vigorous exercise is referred to as V2 max. Long-term endurance training can significantly increase V2 max, while short-term exercise training increases it by about 10%. A marathon runner's V2 max is roughly twice that of the average person. Anthropometric parameters determined by genetics are the primary factors in athletes' V2 max.

O2 Diffusing Capacity in Athletes

The rate of oxygen diffusion from the alveoli into the blood per millimetre of mercury difference between the partial pressures of oxygen in the alveoli and the deoxygenated blood is known as the O2 diffusing capacity (ml O2/min/mmHg). The diffusion capacity multiplies between rest and the maximum of exercise. This is primarily caused by an increase in cardiac output and perfusion area by the recruitment of previously collapsed capillaries. Smoking and conditions like emphysema that reduce alveolar surface area can negatively impact diffusion capacity.

ii. Importance of training

Ans) To accomplish training objectives, training is done over an extended period of time. Training may have an impact on one's mental, emotional, and physical health. Usually, the goal is to bring about desirable or positive change. During exercise, muscle fibres thicken. Periodic evaluations of the athlete's performance are part of training. The difficulty of the task performance during training typically increases gradually. Training implies some kind of long-term, gradual improvement in performance output.

Types of Training

The actual procedure of performing strength training during a training session is covered by strength training organisation. It consists primarily of two elements: the method for organising strength exercises and the loading technique used during a strength exercise. There are three ways to arrange strength training, and they are as follows:

Station Training

This is the most typical variation, and it works well for enhancing strength abilities, particularly maximum strength, and explosive strength. Before moving on to the next exercise in station training, the necessary repetitions and sets of an exercise are completed.

Set Training

This variation is good for building strength and stamina. However, it also has some endurance-building effects and is useful for enhancing maximum and explosive strength. A set of exercises consists of two to three exercises. Before beginning the next set, one set of each exercise is completed in rotation. The exercises for the various muscle groups should be chosen for set training. This makes it possible to exercise for shorter periods of time overall by allowing for quicker recovery times.

Circuit Training

A very common and successful variation for increasing strength and endurance is circuit training. During a circuit workout, various exercises are performed one after the other. One round is finished after completing one set of each exercise in turn. In circuit training, there are typically three or more rounds. There are typically 5–12 exercises in a circuit workout.

Answer any two of the following questions in about 150 words each. 5x2

i. Physiological response to maximal exercise.

Ans) VO2 max significantly increases during maximal exercise. All age groups saw a significant increase in VO2 max as a result of endurance training. Maximum lactate and hormone concentrations during GXT were lower in older participants than in younger ones. These results in the cortisol and growth hormone response caught our attention.

Although the researchers were still unsure of the latter as a cause, this reduction may have been brought on by a decrease in the reproductive glands' capacity to synthesise and secrete the hormone or a decrease in the plasma's capacity to remove and clear the hormones. However, numerous studies have shown that older individuals have a decreased capacity to produce growth hormones and cortisol both at rest and in response to various treatments, such as fasting and exercise. Growth hormone pulses were observed for 24 hours, and the amplitude and frequency showed a clear aging-related decline in secreting capacity.

ii. Glycolysis

Ans) Glucose is transformed into pyruvate through a series of biochemical reactions known as glycolysis, also called the lactic acid system. Each glucose molecule requires two ATPs to break it down, but four ATPs are also produced, so there is a net gain of two ATPs. Similar to the ATP-PC system, glycolysis is an anaerobic process that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. When pyruvate is broken down without oxygen, lactate is created. However, pyruvate can then be used to fuel additional anaerobic metabolism because lactate dehydrogenase quickly transforms it back to pyruvate.

When performing high-intensity exercises, lactate can build up in the muscle and is frequently held responsible for fatigue. But it's important to remember that other metabolic by-products can also affect the cellular environment and act as a contributing factor. For tasks requiring intense concentration for periods longer than 10 seconds and up to two minutes, this system is effective. When there is enough oxygen available, pyruvate enters mitochondria and changes into the metabolic intermediary molecule acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) for additional metabolism and ATP production. The aerobic system will go into more detail about this.

Assignment –III

Answer the following questions in the about 250 words 10x3=30

i. Discuss in brief static lung respiratory function.

Ans) It is the procedure by which outside air enters the lungs and exchanges with the air there. Alveoli transfer O2 to capillary blood, and capillary blood transfers CO2 to the alveoli. At rest, 200 ml of CO2 and 250 ml of O2 diffuse in the opposite directions every minute. The diaphragm lowers, the ribs rise, the volume rises, the intra-pulmonic pressure falls, and the air rushes in, increasing the size of the chest cavity. External intercostals, sternocleidomastoids, and spinal extensors are the muscles in charge of this. Expiration is a passive process that causes the diaphragm to relax, the ribs to lower, volume to decrease, intra-pulmonary pressure to rise, air to rush out, and a corresponding decrease in the size of the chest cavity. Stagnant Lung. The following measurements are made using a spirometer to determine volume:

1. Tidal Volume (TV): It is the volume of air inspired or expired per breath.

2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): It is the maximum amount of air inhaled after normal inspiration (at the end of tidal volume).

3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): It is the maximum amount of air exhaled after normal expiration (at the end of tidal volume).

4. Residual volume (RV): It is the volume of air left (residue) after full expiration. Dynamic lung volumes are measured through spirometer by taking following measurements:

5. Forced vital capacity (FVC): It is the amount of air that can be forcedly exhaled from the lungs after taking a deep breath, or maximum inspiration. Tidal volume (TV), Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV), and Expiratory Reserve Volume are added together to form it (ERV).

6. Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1): It is the amount of air that is forced to leave the lungs in the first second after taking a deep breath, or maximum inspiration.

ii. What are the steps to measure pulse and heart rate.

Ans) Initial increases in SV follow increases in heart rate. There is less time for diastole, or ventricular filling, as it rises though. Lower SV results from low ventricular filling. CO will initially stay constant as the rising HR makes up for the falling SV. However, at very high rates, CO gradually declines because the increased heart rates can no longer make up for the declining SV.

Heart rate is the quantity of heartbeats or contractions per minute. It is measured under physiologically controlled circumstances and is expressed in beats per minute (beats/min). Your heart rate is affected by a variety of variables, including physical activity, danger to your safety, and personal emotional responses. As you might expect, your heart rate differs significantly depending on whether you're in a car accident or lying-in bed.

The most accurate methods for measuring heart rate are displayed by the United States National Library of Medicine. Generally speaking, you can check your pulse where the arteries are close to the skin. Your wrist, the top of your foot, your temple, your neck, and your groyne are some potential locations for this. At home, checking your heart rate from your wrist is the most typical method.

iii. Explain the procedure for haemoglobin estimation

Ans) Haemoglobin estimation gives a doctor a quick idea of the pathological conditions so that they can quickly identify the pathology's underlying causes and recommend a successful course of treatment. A healthy body contains about 600 gms of total Hb.

To determine whether anaemia is present and, if so, how severe it is. To manage, prevent, and/or treat anaemia going forward, as far as the administration of IFA tablets is concerned. For the diagnosis of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH), in which a smaller amount of blood loss is taken as PPH in anaemic women, the woman may need referral for taking injectable iron preparations or undergo a blood transfusion if the anaemia is severe.

Estimate the pregnant women's Hb levels at the first antenatal appointment and once more at 28 weeks. The initial Hb level will serve as a standard against which to measure the outcomes at 28–30 weeks. Anaemia is defined as having a haemoglobin (Hb) level below 11 g/dL at any point during pregnancy, between 7 and 11 g/dL as moderate anaemia, and below 7 g/dL as severe anaemia.

Start the woman on the recommended dosage if anaemia is discovered. After a month, recalculate the Hb level. Refer the woman to a higher facility with a good laboratory infrastructure and trained staff if there is no increase in the Hb level so that the cause of the anaemia can be determined.