If you are looking for BEGC-105 IGNOU Solved Assignment solution for the subject American Literature, you have come to the right place. BEGC-105 solution on this page applies to 2024-25 session students studying in BAEGH courses of IGNOU.
BEGC-105 Solved Assignment Solution by Gyaniversity
Assignment Code: BEGC-105/TMA 01/2024-25
Course Code: BEGC-105
Assignment Name: American Literature
Year: 2024-25
Verification Status: Verified by Professor
Section A
Answer with reference to the context: 5×4=20
(i) Exult O shores, and ring O bells!
But I with mournful tread.
Walk the deck my captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.
Ans) This excerpt is from the poem "O Captain! My Captain!" by Walt Whitman. The poem is an extended metaphor for the death of Abraham Lincoln, written after his assassination in 1865.
"Exult O shores, and ring O bells!" - This line reflects the celebration of a great victory (the end of the American Civil War), symbolized by the shores and bells rejoicing.
"But I with mournful tread." - The speaker contrasts the celebration with his personal grief, indicating that while others are celebrating, he is filled with sorrow.
"Walk the deck my captain lies, Fallen cold and dead." - The speaker mourns the loss of the "Captain" (symbolizing Abraham Lincoln) who lies dead on the deck of the ship, which represents the nation. Despite the victory, the captain's death overshadows the joy, marking a profound sense of loss.
Thus, the passage contrasts public celebration with personal mourning. While others rejoice in the victory, the speaker grieves the death of a beloved leader.
(ii) Far or forget to me is near;
Shadow and sunlight are the same;
The vanquished Gods to me appear;
and one to me are shame and fame.
Ans) This passage is from Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "The Ancient Sage." In this poem, the speaker, who is often interpreted as an old and wise figure, reflects on deep philosophical ideas about life, the universe, and human experience.
"Far or forget to me is near;" - This line suggests that for the speaker, distance and forgetfulness are irrelevant. The boundaries between what is near and what is far, what is remembered and what is forgotten, have blurred, signifying a transcendence of ordinary concerns.
"Shadow and sunlight are the same;" - The speaker expresses a sense of equanimity, where opposites (light and dark, positive and negative) no longer have distinct meaning or value. The sage has moved beyond dualities, seeing the essential unity in all things.
"The vanquished Gods to me appear;" - Here, the speaker implies that even the old, defeated deities or ideals still hold significance or are present to him. This can be interpreted as seeing value in what others might discard or consider obsolete.
"And one to me are shame and fame." - This suggests that the speaker no longer distinguishes between societal notions of success (fame) and failure (shame). Both are equally insignificant in his view, transcended in his higher understanding.
(iii) A thought went up my mind today
That I have had before
But did not finish some way back
I could not fix the year.
Ans) This passage is from a poem by Emily Dickinson, who often explores themes of introspection, fleeting thoughts, and the mysterious nature of the mind. In this particular excerpt, the speaker reflects on a thought that has resurfaced but remains elusive.
"A thought went up my mind today" - The speaker experiences a fleeting or sudden thought that rises into their consciousness.
"That I have had before" - The thought is not entirely new; it has been encountered previously, suggesting it is recurring or something that has been on the speaker's mind for a long time.
"But did not finish some way back" - Although the thought has come up before, the speaker never fully developed or completed it. There’s a sense of incompletion, as if it was left unresolved or unexplored.
"I could not fix the year." - The speaker cannot recall exactly when this thought first appeared. This highlights the mysterious nature of memory and the passage of time, as well as the difficulty of pinning down vague, abstract ideas.
(iv) But O heart ! heart ! heart !
O the bleeding drops of red,
Where on the deck my captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead
Ans) This passage is also from Walt Whitman's poem "O Captain! My Captain!" The poem, an elegy for President Abraham Lincoln, mourns the loss of the "Captain" (Lincoln) after the Civil War victory. The speaker expresses deep grief and shock over the captain's death.
"But O heart! heart! heart!" - The repetition of "heart" emphasizes the speaker's overwhelming emotional pain and sorrow. The use of an apostrophe (direct address) heightens the intensity of the speaker's grief.
"O the bleeding drops of red," - This line symbolizes the literal or metaphorical bloodshed associated with the captain's (Lincoln's) death. The image of blood signifies both the violence of the assassination and the emotional suffering of the speaker.
"Where on the deck my captain lies," - The captain, symbolizing Lincoln, lies lifeless on the deck of the ship, representing the nation. The deck suggests a place of leadership and command, now tragically abandoned.
"Fallen cold and dead" - This final phrase reiterates the captain's death, using stark, direct language to convey the reality of the loss. The repetition emphasizes the finality and the shock of the captain's passing.
Section B
Answer the following in about 300 words each: 5X4=20
1. Write an extended note on the poetic devices used in “O Captain ! My Captain !”.
Ans) Walt Whitman's poem "O Captain! My Captain!" employs several poetic devices to convey the emotional depth and thematic complexity of the poem, which is an elegy for President Abraham Lincoln.
Metaphor: One of the most prominent devices in the poem is the extended metaphor. The ship represents the United States, the captain symbolizes Abraham Lincoln, and the "fearful trip" refers to the Civil War. The ship's safe return symbolizes the Union's victory, while the captain's death refers to Lincoln's assassination. This metaphor creates a powerful image that connects the personal grief of the speaker with the national loss.
Repetition: The poem makes frequent use of repetition to emphasize emotion, particularly grief. For instance, the repetition of “heart! heart! heart!” highlights the speaker’s deep sorrow and sense of loss. This device reinforces the emotional intensity and reflects the speaker's mourning.
Rhyme and Meter: Unlike much of Whitman’s free verse, this poem employs a more structured form. Each of the three stanzas follows an AABBCDED rhyme scheme, contributing to its rhythmic quality. This formal structure mirrors the elegiac tone, lending a sense of solemnity to the poem.
Imagery: Whitman uses vivid imagery to paint scenes of celebration and mourning. For example, “the bleeding drops of red” creates a stark image of Lincoln's assassination, evoking both literal and metaphorical bloodshed. This image contrasts with the celebratory images of “bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths” prepared for the captain.
Alliteration and Assonance: Whitman also incorporates alliteration (e.g., "flag is flung") and assonance (e.g., "fallen cold and dead"), which add musicality to the poem and help underscore key emotional moments.
Through these poetic devices, Whitman balances the triumph of the Union's victory with the tragic death of its leader, creating a poignant and emotionally resonant work(BEGC-105-full-textbook).
2. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Because I could not stop for death”.
Ans) "Because I Could Not Stop for Death" by Emily Dickinson is one of her most celebrated poems, exploring the themes of death and immortality. Through the use of symbolism, personification, and precise imagery, Dickinson presents death as a natural and inevitable part of life, rather than something to fear.
Personification: The most notable poetic device in this poem is personification. Dickinson personifies Death as a kind and polite gentleman who comes to take the speaker on a carriage ride. This transforms the usually grim and fearsome image of death into a calm, civil escort, which helps alleviate the typical dread associated with death. Additionally, Immortality, another abstract concept, is also personified, riding along as a companion. This suggests that death is not the end but a passage to an eternal life.
Symbolism: The entire poem is rich with symbolic imagery. The journey the speaker embarks on with Death represents the transition from life to the afterlife. The passing of the school (childhood), the fields of grain (adulthood), and the setting sun (old age and death) symbolizes the stages of life, which culminate in the speaker’s acceptance of death as part of the natural order.
Tone and Structure: The tone of the poem is calm and reflective, reinforced by its slow, steady pace, much like the carriage ride itself. The rhyme and meter further contribute to this tranquility, creating a sense of inevitability and peace about the speaker’s journey toward death.
Imagery: Dickinson employs vivid imagery to convey the progression of life. For example, the "setting sun" and the speaker's light, insubstantial "gossamer" gown evoke the finality of death and the transition into a different realm.
Ultimately, the poem suggests that death is not something to be feared, but rather, it is a journey one undertakes with dignity and grace, leading to the eternal world of immortality .
3. Critically evaluate the poem ‘‘Death Sets a Thing Significant’’
Ans) Emily Dickinson's poem "Death Sets a Thing Significant" explores how death imparts meaning to otherwise ordinary objects. After a loved one passes away, the seemingly trivial things they leave behind take on new emotional significance, becoming valuable reminders of the person. This theme is vividly illustrated through a reflection on a friend's belongings.
Theme of Transformation through Death: The central theme of the poem is the transformative power of death. It highlights how the everyday items we often overlook or dismiss as insignificant gain immense value once the person associated with them is no longer alive. Dickinson writes that death "sets a thing significant," suggesting that death bestows an emotional charge on items that would otherwise go unnoticed.
Use of Symbolism: In the poem, simple objects such as "workmanships in crayon or wool" and "a thimble" are used as symbols of a person's last actions. These items, though mundane, become imbued with deep emotional value as they represent the last things a loved one worked on before their death. The thimble, for instance, becomes a powerful symbol of the person's industriousness and their eventual inability to continue working as death approaches.
Emotional Impact of Death: Dickinson conveys the profound emotional impact of death on those left behind. The speaker reveals how difficult it is to engage with the belongings of a deceased friend, particularly a book with markings left by the friend. The speaker’s tears "obliterate the etchings," underscoring how grief can make it impossible to focus on anything but the loss.
4. Discuss major themes as explored in Hemingway’s short stories.
Ans) Ernest Hemingway's short stories explore a range of recurring themes, each contributing to his reputation as a master of modernist fiction. Some of the major themes in his short stories include:
Violence and Death: Hemingway often delves into the violence inherent in life, be it physical or emotional. War is a prominent backdrop in many of his stories, like "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "A Farewell to Arms," where characters are constantly grappling with life-threatening situations. Death is presented not only as a natural end but as a force that gives meaning to life. Stories such as "The Killers" or "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" portray death as inevitable, yet its imminence forces characters to confront their existence.
Man’s Struggle against Nature: Hemingway often explores the theme of man's battle against the natural world. In stories like "The Old Man and the Sea," the protagonist Santiago’s struggle with a giant marlin in the vast ocean symbolizes not just a physical battle, but also an existential one, where the fight itself gives life purpose. This theme also extends to hunting and outdoor survival in works like "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber."
Alienation and Loneliness: Many of Hemingway's characters, especially his war veterans, experience profound alienation and a sense of not belonging. In stories like "Soldier’s Home," the protagonist returns from war only to find himself detached from his previous life, unable to reconnect with his family and community. Similarly, "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" portrays characters finding solace in isolation and the existential void.
Masculinity and Heroism: Hemingway frequently explores traditional notions of masculinity, focusing on courage, strength, and stoicism. His male protagonists often face moral or physical challenges that test their manhood. Stories like "The Battler" and "Hills Like White Elephants" portray male protagonists dealing with issues of pride, honor, and emotional control.
Love and Loss: In many of Hemingway's stories, romantic relationships are fraught with conflict and end in disappointment or loss. Stories such as "Cat in the Rain" and "Hills Like White Elephants" explore the complexities and tensions in male-female relationships, often focusing on misunderstandings, emotional distance, and unfulfilled desires .
These themes highlight the complexities of human existence, particularly the inner struggles of Hemingway's protagonists as they navigate a world filled with chaos, violence, and existential uncertainty.
Section C
Answer the following questions in about 600 words each: 4X15=60
1. Give a critical justification with respect to the title of the play All My Sons
Ans) The title All My Sons by Arthur Miller is highly symbolic and serves as a critical lens through which the central themes of the play—moral responsibility, familial duty, and social accountability—are examined. The title encapsulates the conflict between personal interests and larger social obligations, making it a fitting choice that amplifies the play’s tragic undertones and ethical dilemmas. Here is a critical justification of the title of the play:
Personal vs. Universal Responsibility
At the core of All My Sons is the moral tension between Joe Keller’s responsibility to his immediate family and his broader social obligations. Joe Keller’s decisions during World War II are framed by his intense focus on his family, particularly his desire to secure the future for his sons, Chris and Larry. In order to protect his business and provide financial stability for his family, Keller knowingly ships defective airplane parts that result in the deaths of 21 pilots. His justification is purely personal—he did it to preserve the business for his sons, particularly Chris.
However, the title suggests that Keller’s moral responsibility extends beyond his biological sons to all the young men who lost their lives due to his actions. The phrase All My Sons reflects the realization that these 21 pilots were, in a moral sense, also his sons. Keller's recognition of this broader responsibility comes tragically late when he declares, “They were all my sons.” His failure to acknowledge this universal responsibility earlier leads to the catastrophic outcome of the play. The title thus underscores the theme that a person's duty extends beyond their own family to society as a whole.
Larry’s Symbolic Presence
Larry, Keller’s missing son, is central to the play's moral fabric, even though he never appears on stage. Larry’s death, caused indirectly by Keller’s actions, serves as a symbol of the larger implications of Keller’s choices. Throughout the play, Kate Keller clings to the belief that Larry is still alive, refusing to accept the idea that her husband might be responsible for their son's death. The illusion that Larry will return enables Kate to support her husband and the lie that has sustained their family for years.
Larry's letter, which reveals his intention to commit suicide out of shame for his father's actions, brings the title into sharp focus. Larry felt a sense of duty to the men under his command, and upon realizing his father’s betrayal of that responsibility, he could not bear to live. Larry’s death becomes a direct consequence of Joe Keller’s betrayal, linking the personal and the universal. Larry’s symbolic role as both son and moral compass emphasizes the theme that all the young men who died due to the defective parts were, in a sense, "sons" of Keller. The title thus amplifies the tragic irony that Keller's attempts to protect his family lead to its ultimate destruction.
The Father-Son Relationship
The father-son relationship is a critical component of All My Sons, particularly the dynamic between Joe Keller and his son, Chris. Chris represents the idealistic perspective that challenges Joe’s pragmatic and morally dubious decisions. Chris views his father as a man of integrity and struggles to reconcile the truth about Keller’s crime with the image he holds of him. When Chris discovers his father's culpability, he is devastated, and this tension between father and son mirrors the broader theme of conflicting values between generations.
The title, All My Sons, also reflects this generational conflict. Chris, like Larry, embodies a broader sense of moral duty that extends beyond personal or familial gain. His disillusionment with his father stems from the realization that Joe’s actions were driven solely by self-interest, with no regard for the consequences on society. The title thus encapsulates the moral awakening that both Chris and Joe experience—the understanding that one's duty is not confined to one's immediate family, but includes a broader responsibility to the community and humanity as a whole.
Social Commentary
Miller’s play is also a critique of the American capitalist ethos, where the pursuit of profit often supersedes ethical considerations. The title All My Sons serves as a condemnation of this narrow focus on individual success at the expense of collective well-being. Joe Keller’s downfall is emblematic of a larger societal failure—his refusal to see beyond his own family's needs mirrors a wider social tendency to prioritize personal gain over communal responsibility. The title reinforces the idea that society is interconnected, and that the harm done to one group or individual ultimately affects the whole.
2. Write a critical comment on the genre of The Scarlet Letter.
Ans) Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, first published in 1850, is a seminal work in American literature and occupies a unique place within several overlapping literary genres. It is most commonly classified as a work of Romanticism, but it also incorporates elements of historical fiction, psychological fiction, and allegory. This multi-layered genre approach allows Hawthorne to explore complex themes such as sin, guilt, and redemption against the backdrop of a Puritan society. Below is a critical commentary on the various genres associated with The Scarlet Letter:
Romanticism
The Scarlet Letter, an American Romantic work, has numerous Romantic traits. Romanticism in literature emphasises the individual, emotions, nature, and supernatural. Hawthorne's novel explores his characters' mental and emotional states, especially Hester Prynne, whose struggles and resilience are important. The Scarlet Letter critiques the Puritan community's oppression, as Romanticism often does. The town shuns Hester, who wears the scarlet letter "A" for adultery. Hawthorne's story criticises Puritanism's rigidity, hypocrisy, and lack of compassion, which strives to dominate people. The rich depictions of nature against the grey Puritan colony emphasise the Romantic contrast between nature and civilisation. Hester finds comfort in nature, especially when she and Arthur Dimmesdale meet in the forest, a Romantic realm of emotional and spiritual emancipation.
Historical Fiction
Puritanism ruled New England in the 17th century, when The Scarlet Letter is set. In his historical fiction, Hawthorne meticulously recreates early colonial America, focussing on Puritan morality and heavy punishment. Although the people and events in the work are fictional, Hawthorne uses historical data and intimate experience of Puritanism to portray the time accurately. The narrative voice, rich in historical context, describes theocratic administration, where civil and religious laws were linked and sins were punished publicly. Hawthorne explores historical issues beyond setting. He explores religion, law, and morality through a Puritan community's adultery consequences. Hester's public shame and Dimmesdale's private remorse, a beloved pastor, show the human cost of rigorous moral rules and oppressive societal systems.
Psychological Fiction
The Scarlet Letter is an early psychological novel because Hawthorne is concerned with his characters' inner lives. Hester Prynne, Arthur Dimmesdale, and Roger Chillingworth's mental and emotional states are explored in the work. Hawthorne carefully shows how guilt, humiliation, and revenge influence each character's life. The novel's protagonist, Hester, experiences a deep psychological change. She starts off as a social outcast and shamed, but she becomes a symbol of strength, tenacity, and dignity. However, Arthur Dimmesdale's hidden sin tortures him mentally. Physical and mental disease from guilt resulted to his breakdown. Roger Chillingworth, Hester's ex-husband, becomes morally and psychologically corrupted by retribution. Hawthorne's focus on interior struggles, especially sin and salvation, gives the tale psychological depth.
Allegory
Allegory, where characters and events represent moral and intellectual dilemmas, describes The Scarlet Letter. To symbolise Hester's transgression and societal judgement, the novel's most prominent emblem is the scarlet letter "A". The letter eventually symbolises shame, strength, and redemption to different people. All of the novel's primary characters are allegorical. Hester symbolises individual resilience and salvation against social stigma. Dimmesdale illustrates how social pressures can erode human integrity by mixing public virtue with private remorse. Chillingworth is a cautionary figure whose vengeance dehumanises and destroys him. Hawthorne's moral allegory tackles sin, shame, judgement, and forgiveness via these individuals.
Symbolism and the Gothic Tradition
While not strictly a Gothic novel, The Scarlet Letter contains Gothic elements, particularly in its use of dark, foreboding imagery and themes of sin and human fallibility. Chillingworth’s transformation into a demonic figure of vengeance and the supernatural hints surrounding Dimmesdale’s mysterious illness evoke a Gothic atmosphere. Moreover, the novel is replete with symbolic imagery, such as the contrast between light and darkness, the scarlet letter itself, and the scaffold, which serves as a symbol of judgment, shame, and redemption throughout the story.
3. Discuss the poetic achievements of Walt Whitman with suitable examples from the poems prescribed in the course.
Ans) Walt Whitman is often considered one of the most influential and groundbreaking poets in American literature. His contributions to poetry lie in his innovative free verse style, his deep engagement with themes of democracy, individuality, nature, and the human body, and his celebration of the American experience. Through his poetry, particularly his magnum opus Leaves of Grass, Whitman redefined what it meant to be an American poet, rejecting traditional forms and embracing a more expansive, inclusive vision of humanity. The poems prescribed in the course, such as "O Captain! My Captain!" and "Passage to India", highlight his achievements in unique ways.
Revolutionary Free Verse Form
Free verse is one of Whitman's greatest contributions to poetry. English and American poetry had strict rhyme and metre before Whitman. Whitman broke these limits and wrote in a flowing, organic style that reflected genuine speech and thought. Long, wide lines, repetition, and cataloguing produce a cumulative, expansive impact in his free verse. Whitman creates a wide worldview in "Passage to India" with lengthy lines and cataloguing. Human achievements like the Suez Canal, transcontinental railroad, and spiritual pursuits show humanity's progress and connection to the divine. Whitman can examine the grandeur of human experience without a rhyme system or metre in the poem. Free poetry lets the poem breathe and extend, like the infinite world it describes.
Celebration of Democracy and Individuality
Whitman is known as the "poet of democracy" for his compositions that praise individuality and democracy. He thought everyone, regardless of colour, gender, or socioeconomic standing, deserved lyrical attention. His first-person poetry uses "I" to represent the human experience and promotes this inclusive perspective. His free verse style ignores traditional literary hierarchies, making his poetry democratic in substance and form.
Whitman addresses the death of Abraham Lincoln, a revered captain of a ship representing the US, in "O Captain! My Captain!" Though structured more traditionally than Whitman's usual free verse, the poem expresses his genuine concern for the nation's soul, especially after the Civil War. Whitman communicates American suffering both personally and publicly through the captain metaphor. The speaker's grieving shows Whitman's attention on the personal in the national disaster, while "fallen cold and dead" symbolises the common loss.
Exploration of Spirituality and Transcendence
Whitman also explored spirituality through a transcendental view of the interconnectedness of all things. Whitman saw God in nature, the body, and human accomplishments. He believes the physical world may reveal deeper, universal truths, hence his poetry often merges the material and spiritual. Whitman blends spirituality with inquiry in "Passage to India". The poem highlights technology advances like continent connection but also explores a spiritual path to togetherness and understanding. Whitman uses India as a magical, ancient location to imagine a future where human development leads to spiritual awakening as well as material achievement. Whitman's poetry explores interconnection, with the soul always in dialogue with the universe.
Celebration of the Human Body
Whitman’s poetry is notable for its celebration of the human body, which he often describes in bold, sensual terms. In the context of the 19th century, this focus on the body was revolutionary, as many poets of the time avoided direct references to physicality, especially when it involved sexuality. Whitman, however, saw the body as sacred, a vessel for the soul, and an essential part of human experience. In poems like "I Sing the Body Electric", Whitman celebrates the human form in all its diversity and beauty. He views the body as a microcosm of the universe and often uses the human body as a metaphor for the democratic ideals he espouses. Whitman’s emphasis on the physicality of human life, combined with his spiritual themes, makes his work unique in the way it integrates the sacred and the secular.
Universalism and the Collective Consciousness
Whitman’s poetry often extends beyond the individual to encompass a broader sense of collective humanity. He writes not just for Americans but for all people, reflecting his belief in the interconnectedness of all human beings. His poems frequently dissolve the boundaries between the self and the other, suggesting that personal identity is inseparable from the larger human experience.
In "Song of Myself", a poem not included in the prescribed readings but central to his work, Whitman famously declares, "I am large, I contain multitudes." This line epitomizes his poetic achievement: the ability to speak for the self while also speaking for others, to embrace both individuality and universalism. His use of the first-person voice often blurs the line between the poet and the reader, creating a sense of shared experience and empathy.
4. Write a detailed note on the rise and development of American Drama.
Ans) The Rise and Development of American Drama
American drama, like the nation itself, evolved over centuries, shaped by a variety of influences ranging from European theatrical traditions to uniquely American experiences. While American literature began to take shape in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, drama as an independent, recognized art form developed more slowly. It was not until the 20th century that American drama matured, gaining global recognition with the works of playwrights such as Eugene O'Neill, Arthur Miller, and Tennessee Williams. Below is a detailed account of the rise and development of American drama.
Colonial Beginnings and British Influence
American drama began in the colonial period, but Puritan settlers considered plays wicked and curtailed their performances. Early American drama resembled British patterns due to cultural linkages between the colonies and England. In 1714, Robert Hunter wrote Androboros, the first American play, which was more political satire than drama. These early initiatives did not organise theatre culture; amateur performances dominated. The American Company, founded in the 18th century by English performers, performed in Philadelphia, New York, and Charleston. These performances, frequently of popular English plays, established American theatre but did not yet reflect American identity.
The 19th Century: Melodrama and National Themes
American drama began to develop its own themes in the early 19th century, but it was still largely influenced by European melodrama. Exaggerated emotions, stock characters, and clear moral divisions made melodramas popular in the US. John Augustus Stone's Metamora (1829), a play about Native Americans, showed a rising interest in distinctly American subject matter while maintaining the theatrical form. The first major American writer, Robert Montgomery Bird, wrote The Gladiator (1831), about insurrection and independence. Uncle Tom's Cabin, George L. Aiken's adaptation of Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, was one of the century's most performed plays, showing how social issues—especially slavery—became part of American drama. These plays inspired future American dramatists to examine social and political themes.
The Late 19th Century: Realism and Early Social Commentary
By the late 19th century, European playwrights like Henrik Ibsen influenced American drama towards realism. Realism focused on regular people and situations to better reflect life. Bronson Howard, a significant player in this period, authored Shenandoah (1889), a Civil War play that abandoned melodrama for a more serious focus. James A. Herne's paintings likewise reflect this realism. He pioneered American theatre by exploring morality, family, and societal standards in Margaret Fleming (1890). Herne's realism inspired future American playwrights to tackle social issues more fully and nuancedly.
The 20th Century: The Emergence of Modern American Drama
American drama changed in the early 20th century as playwrights addressed modern life's complications. Eugene O'Neill, the founder of American theatre, revolutionised the stage with his examination of psychological depth, complicated characters, and the human condition. Family struggle, existential melancholy, and human darkness were explored in O'Neill's plays like The Iceman Cometh (1939) and Long Day's Journey into Night (1956). O'Neill was the first American playwright to earn international renown, including the Nobel Prize for Literature, and he helped move American drama away from melodrama towards tragedy and realism.
Other mid-20th-century playwrights advanced American drama after O'Neill. In plays like A Streetcar Named longing (1947) and The Glass Menagerie (1944), Tennessee Williams employed symbolism and poetic language to explore themes of loneliness, longing, and psychological upheaval. Death of a Salesman (1949) and The Crucible (1953) investigated social concerns like the American Dream's failures and public panic. Miller and Williams helped establish American drama as a serious, introspective art form that addresses personal and societal issues.
The Post-War Period and Social Consciousness
American theatre began to address race, class, and gender after WWII. Lorraine Hansberry's 1959 drama A Raisin in the Sun, which explored racial inequality and African American families in a white world, was a watershed. Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962) pioneered absurdist drama about communication and relationship failure. The second half of the 20th century saw playwrights like Sam Shepard, David Mamet, and August Wilson explore family, violence, race, and disenchantment with modern society. August Wilson's Pittsburgh Cycle, 10 plays on 20th-century African American life, is a powerful critique on race relations in the US.
Contemporary American Drama
In recent decades, American drama has continued to evolve, addressing contemporary issues such as immigration, gender identity, and the LGBTQ+ experience. Playwrights like Tony Kushner, with Angels in America (1991), tackled the AIDS crisis and broader questions of politics and identity. Contemporary playwrights such as Lynn Nottage, Suzan-Lori Parks, and Sarah Ruhl continue to push the boundaries of American drama, experimenting with form and content while addressing pressing social concerns.
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