Assignment Code: BHIE-145/ASST/TMA/2022-2023

Course Code: BHIE-145

Assignment Name: Some Aspects of European History 1789-1945

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the Sections.

Section-I

Answer the following in about 500 words each. 20x2

Q1) Analyze the factors leading to the French Revolution of 1789. What was the significance of the French Revolution?

Ans) The French Revolution was a time of social and political upheaval in France and its colonies that began in 1789 and ended in 1799. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, Its overthrow of the Monarchy influenced the decline of absolute Monarchies in other parts of Europe. Empty royal coffers, poor harvests and rise in food prices had created feelings of unrest among the poor rural and urban populace. The matter was further worsened by the imposition of taxes that provided no relief. As a result, rioting, looting and general strikes became the norm.

Towards the end of 1786, a universal land tax was proposed by the controller general, Charles Alexandre de Calonne. This tax reform would no longer exempt the privileged classes like the clergy and the nobility as had been the case for centuries. The King summoned the Estates-General to pass these measures. The Estates-General was an assembly that represented the French nobility clergy and the middle class. The last time the Estates-General was called was in 1614. The date of the meeting was fixed on May 5, 1789, where grievances of the three estates would be presented to the king.

Causes of French Revolution of 1789

Social: The social conditions in France in the late 18th century were extremely unequal and exploitative. The clergy and the nobility formed the first two Estates and were the most privileged classes in French society. They were exempt from payment of taxes to the State. On the other hand, the Third Estate that consisted of peasants and workers formed the majority of the population. They were burdened with excessive taxes with no political and social rights. As a result, they were extremely discontent.

Economic: As a result of numerous wars waged by Louis XVI the State coffers were empty. The situation was made even more complex by France’s involvement in the American War of Independence and the faulty system of taxation. While the privileged classes were excused from paying taxes the Third Estate was more and more burdened with them.

Political: The Bourbon king of France, Louis XVI was an extremely autocratic and weak-willed king who led a life of obscene luxury. This led to a lot of disenchantment among the masses who then were leading life of extreme poverty and widespread hunger.

Intellectual: The 18th century was marked by a conscious refusal by French thinkers of the ‘Divine Rights Theory’. Philosophers like Rousseau rejected the paradigm of absolute monarchy and promulgated the doctrine of equality of man and sovereignty of people. They played a pivotal role in exposing the fault lines of the old political system, i.e., the ancient regime, and articulating the popular discontent.

Significance of the French Revolution

For all its faults, the French Revolution is highly regarded as the turning point in modern history as the rise of new ideas steeped in liberalism, enlightenment and democracy. These ideals were carried throughout Europe by French armies that fought many wars in order to preserve the Republic’s existence. It inspired the common folk in Europe to rise up against their own Monarchs in a wave of revolutionary fervour. Although most were harshly put down, the revolutions would continue into the early years of the 19th century which saw the fall of many absolute Monarchy all over Europe.

Q2) Discuss the nature and process of industrialization in France and Germany.

Ans) W.W. Rostow asserts that modern industrialisation can be viewed as a revolution that completely breaks with the past. It marks the start of a new era of sustainable growth and begins with a "take-off." This is distinguished by a shift in labour from farm to industry, high levels of savings and investments, the growth of the factory system, and a quickening of urbanisation. The industrialization of relatively backward economies was accompanied by a quick increase in industrial output, according to a theory Gerschenkron put up. In fact, he contended that the more interventionist the role of the government and banks, the more backward the economy is. Here, we'll talk about the industrialization of two sizable European nations France and Germany and examine how they compare and contrast with Britain:

France

Early in the seventeenth century, France had a population almost three times larger than Britain, a level of revenue virtually on pace with Britain, and a scientific resource base on par with Britain. But industrialization took a lot longer. Its gradual industrialisation was very different from that of both Britain and Germany. By manufacturing low-cost goods, British industrialization's pioneering nature and relatively quick pace endangered the French market. The loss of the foreign colonies also removed captive customers for French manufacturing. These circumstances severely hindered the French industrial entrepreneurs. Like British manufacturers, many of them attempted to transition into industries that focused on high-quality output rather than mass production.

A number of French businesspeople targeted the high-end market in both Europe and the rest of the globe, emphasising expertise and workmanship over machine technology. Even the fabrics produced by machines catered to affluent tastes as opposed to mass buyers. The lack of established credit networks, a weak banking system, and the scarcity of coal and iron reserves were the other causes of France's sluggish industrialisation. Additionally, low labour costs and a small market made it unattractive to invest in industrial advancements. Along with this, there was a significantly slower rate of population increase, a relatively high cost of transportation, a small internal market, and an elite that maintained an interest in land and administrative positions.

Germany

While industrial development in France moved somewhat slowly, modern economic growth in Germany accelerated quickly. Within around 30 years, it built up an advanced industrial base. It grew more quickly than Britain did. Germany relied on heavy industries from the start for the huge push forward, unlike Britain and France, which started with the consumer industries. Throughout the nineteenth century, the importance of the state and huge banks was particularly noticeable, as was the pervasiveness of agricultural interests represented by German Junkers.

Prior to its unification in 1870, Germany was separated into a number of independent states, in contrast to France and Britain, which were compact political units. Comparatively speaking to its more developed neighbours, Germany's economy was in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. After 1815, there were more than thirty independent political nations, each of which had its own set of rules for governance, monetary system, weights and measures, and border checks.

Due to the prevalence of serfdom in some places and the limited quantity of capital, labour mobility was constrained. It had cutting-edge educational facilities and access to the best intellectual resources. Another significant step was the introduction of the Prussian custom union in 1818, which led to the establishment of a common market, and finally the establishment of the Zollverein or Customs Union among various German states in 1834. Economic growth was significantly influenced by the formation of a single free trade zone throughout the majority of Germany.

Section-II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each. 10x3

Q1) Explain the emergence of nationalist movements in Italy and Germany.

Ans) The 1840s saw the rise of nationalism as the main political philosophy. Under its influence, European liberalism also underwent a significant radicalization. The Napoleon myth, which is about the expected return of Bonaparte to cement the unity of the French people, was born in France as a result of nationalist sentiments. In order to extend citizenship to regular Frenchmen, the French opposition during the Orleanist monarchy also called for sweeping suffrage reform.

Banquets were held to support this demand for an expansion of the franchise on the eve of the Revolution of 1848. By advocating for universal male suffrage in 1848, the French radical Alexandre Ledru-Rolland went one step further, showing that the political debate's focus on constitutional reform was gradually giving way to a keen awareness of democracy. The impact of this newly emerging democratic ideology expressed in many forms of radical politics did not escape the nationalist mobilisation in Central and Eastern Europe.

We see the emergence of a sense of a shared destiny that is appropriate for a nationalist movement as we approach east and south into Italy and Germany. Political allegiances might still be shaped by dynasticism, regionalism, and confessionalism, particularly in rural areas, but the country nonetheless evolved as a potent rival. In the context of the current level of political polarisation, thinkers started to envision the establishment of an integrated nation-state. The fact that their countries were split up into so many smaller ones was lamented by many Germans and Italians.

With the possible exception of the Piedmontese monarchy, which had long-standing dynastic conflicts with the Austrian Hapsburgs, Italian liberals lacked a comparable state in which to invest their aspirations. However, in actuality, Piedmont was a tiny and comparatively helpless monarchy in comparison to Prussia. As a result, several Italian intellectuals even suggested starting an Italian federation under papal direction, only to be discouraged by the Pope's steadfast reluctance to consider their proposals.

Q2) Analyse the significance of the Bolshevik Revolution.

Ans) A variety of revolutionary changes have been seen throughout human history at various times. However, the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution holds a special position in history. In essence, the two revolutions that occurred in Russia in 1917 were just two phases of a single revolution.

Significance of Bolshevik Revolution

1. Overthrow of Power: The Bolshevik Revolution's first success was the overthrow of autocracy, as well as the abolition of the nobility and the influence of the church.

2. First Communist State: The first communist state in the world was established as a result of the Bolshevik revolution. It made communism a reality rather than just an ideology.

3. Inspired Workers and Peasants: Workers and peasants all around the world were inspired by the success of the Bolshevik Revolution. Everywhere, leftist ideals have become more popular. Along with other nations, Europe saw the emergence of socialist-communist parties.

4. Emergence of an Alternative Model: A political, social, and economic alternative to the capitalist model was made possible by communism's success in Russia. As a result, there is a fierce struggle to win over peoples' hearts and minds.

5. Impact on International Relations: The western capitalist world was horrified when communism began to rise in Russia. Because it was believed that the resurgence of Germany and Italy was required to halt the rise of communism, Western democracies were compelled to follow a more lenient attitude towards both countries.

6. Prepared Background for the Cold War: The Bolshevik Revolution set the stage for the 1946–1991 Cold War between the capitalist and communist blocs.

7. Inspired Other Countries: Similar communist movements were sparked by the Bolshevik Revolution throughout the world. Examples include the Cuban Revolution and the communist revolution in China.

Q3) Write a note on the developments leading to the World Wars.

Ans) A world war is an international conflict in which most or all of the major powers of the world are involved. Although historians have also referred to other global conflicts as world wars, such as the Nine Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years' War, the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the Cold War, and the War on Terror, the term "world war" is traditionally reserved for two major international conflicts that took place during the first half of the 20th century, World War I and World War II.

1. Mutual Defense Alliances: Over time, nations in Europe came to mutual defence pacts that would force them into conflict. By virtue of these treaties, allied nations were obligated to defend one another in the event of an attack.

2. Imperialism: Imperialism is when a nation seizes new lands and uses them to consolidate its power and wealth. Africa and several regions of Asia were contentious regions for the European nations prior to World War I. This was especially true given the availability of raw materials in these regions. A rise in conflict contributed to the globe entering World War I as a result of growing rivalry and the desire for larger empires.

3. Militarism: An arms race had started as the 20th century began. Germany experienced the largest rise in its military buildup by 1914. During this time, both Germany and Great Britain significantly grew their warships. Additionally, the military establishment started to have more of an impact on public policy, particularly in Germany and Russia. The militarization of the world contributed to the countries involved going to war.

4. Nationalism: The desire of the Slavic populations of Bosnia and Herzegovina to join Serbia rather than Austria-Hungary was a major factor in the beginning of the conflict. Nationalism sparked the War in this way. But on a broader scale, nationalism in the various European nations had a part in both the start and the spread of the conflict there. Each nation made an effort to establish its superiority and might.

5. Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: The murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was the immediate cause of World War I, bringing the aforementioned factors into play. The Archduke was assassinated in June 1914 by a Serbian nationalist terrorist organisation known as the Black Hand. When a motorist escaped a grenade hurled at their car, their first attempt was unsuccessful.

Section-III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. 6x5

Q1) Enlightenment

Ans) From the late 17th through the early 19th century, philosophical, political, and scientific discourse was influenced by the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason. Matthew White recounts the history of the Enlightenment from its beginnings in the years following the American Civil War to the present day. As the time of rigorous scientific, political, and philosophical discourse that characterised European culture over the long 18th century from the late 17th century until the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the Enlightenment is known as the great "Age of Reason." This time period saw a significant shift in rational thought that was "decisive in the development of modernity." Centuries of tradition and custom were disregarded in favour of exploration, individualism, tolerance, and scientific endeavour, which, in conjunction with advancements in business and politics, saw the rise of the "modern world."

Q2) Bonapartism

Ans) Historians are generally divided over their assessment of the Bonapartist regime of Louis Napoleon. During 1930’s when Europe was plagued by Fascism he was identified as its precursor. Bonapartism is the political ideology supervening from Napoleon Bonaparte and his followers and successors. The term was used to refer to people who hoped to restore the House of Bonaparte and its style of government. In this sense, a Bonapartiste was a person who either actively participated in or advocated for conservative, monarchist and imperial political factions in 19th-century France. After Napoleon, the term was applied to the French politicians who seized power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, ruling in the French Consulate and subsequently in the First and Second French Empires.

Q3) Idea of Nationalism and Nation-State

Ans) Mass involvement, citizenship, and collective sovereignty of the people or of a particular nationality were all closely related to the concept of the nation. Hobsbawm distinguishes between the nationalist and revolutionary democratic conceptions of the nation. In contrast to the nationalist view, which required the "previous existence" of some distinctive characteristics of a community setting it apart from others, the revolutionary democratic view of the nation held that the sovereign citizen people within a state constituted a nation in relation to others. The French Revolution itself noted how few people actually spoke it, despite the intense post-revolutionary push for linguistic uniformity. One of the requirements for full French citizenship in the revolutionary French conception of the nation was the desire of non-French speakers in France to speak French.

Q4) Analyse the New Economic Policy.

Ans) The New Economy Policy was a response to a political and economic crisis, but its essence was economic changes that changed the transition to socialism approach. NEP shifted the socioeconomic balance. The New Economic Policy adjustments enabled economic recovery and won peasants' trust. Like 1918-21, it continued many transitory policies. The post-famine economic recovery reached 1/3 of the pre-war level by 1923. Comparatively, agricultural production increased by 40%, the total sown area by 45%, and the grain area by 39-43% by 1928. This rate of increase was substantially faster than that of industry, resulting in higher prices for industrial items and a wider price difference between industrial and agricultural commodities. Second, the NEP adjustments couldn't resolve the issues and social conflicts that arose when the revolutionary working class was asked to establish socialism in the midst of a great peasant majority. Individual farmer economy has limited room for class exploitation, but it's still bourgeois.

Q5) Rise of Nazism

Ans) Following World War I, a number of right-wing extreme political organisations developed in Germany, including the Nazi Party. It quickly emerged from political obscurity at the start of the Great Depression to become the largest party in the German parliament in 1932. When the Nazi Party won 107 seats in the Reichstag, Germany's parliament, the party's rapid ascent to power began. With 230 seats, the Nazi Party surpassed all other political parties in the Reichstag in July 1932. Due to its inability to secure a legislative majority, the administration of the Weimar Republic ruled by emergency decree during its final years. The Nazi Party benefited from a combination of political, economic, and voter dissatisfaction with the established quo. Paul von Hindenburg, the German president, appointed Hitler chancellor on January 30, 1933, as a result of the Nazis' widespread popularity. After Hindenburg passed away in August 1934, the Nazi rule was made possible thanks to his appointment.