Assignment Code: BPCC-105/Asst /TMA /2022-23

Course Code: BPCC-105

Assignment Name: Psychological Research

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Assignment One

Answer the following questions in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks. 3 x 20 = 60

1. Discuss the qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection.

Ans) Different research techniques involve different ways of collecting data from the respondents or participants. Basically, the major methods of data collection are quantitative method and qualitative method of data collection. Both these methods have been explained in the following subsections.

Quantitative Methods of Data Collection

A data that can be counted and expressed in terms of numbers or quantity is called quantitative data. A researcher uses several closed ended questionnaires to collect quantitative data, and later on the scores collected from these data are analysed and interpreted. Let us discuss about few of the quantitative methods of collecting data:

Quantitative Survey Method: It has been argued that surveys should be designed in such a way that helps in making accurate decisions. Predominantly there are three major ways which can be used as an instrument in collecting data with the help of survey research.

Sociometry: Sociometry is one of the technique which is used to analyse and study the extent and nature of social relationship of individual within a group. It is a way to find out the personality related problems e.g., it help in identifying individuals who are isolated or rejected in a group.

Attitude Scales (Rating Scales): Rating Scales are used in observational studies to assess the quality of some experience or activity. Regardless of their objective, these scales are frequently used in either of two ways:

Mechanical Observation: In several situation, Observation is conducted by mechanical devices rather than human beings. Mechanical Observation involves use of videotape, traffic counters and other machines for recording behaviour. Researchers tend to use a motion picture camera and time-lapse photography in some unusual observational studies.

Qualitative Methods of Data Collection

Qualitative data collection methods are the techniques used to collect textual or non- numerical data for research and analysis. Few of the techniques of collecting data through qualitative method are as follows:

Projective Techniques: They are the indirect unstructured methods of investigation which uses projection/ responses of participants to find out the underlying motives, beliefs and urges. They are the techniques used to analyse personality of individuals.

Observation Method: This method varies according to the degree to which the observer actively participates in the scene. At one extreme the observer is a non-participant. S/ he neither participates nor intervenes in any way as for example: a researcher or observer who is interested in studying children’s social behaviour may stand outside a playground to observe.

Case Study: Case study provides a systematic and scientific way of perceiving or examining the events, collecting data, analysing information, and preparing a report. As a result, the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did.

Ethnography: The method is also known as ‘ethnomethodology’ or ‘methodology of people.’ As discussed earlier this type of research method basically intends to study culture through close observation and active participation.

Grounded Theory: Unlike other methods of qualitative research, the grounded theorists do not believe in collecting data through taping and transcribing interviews as it is believed to be a waste of time in grounded theories.

Discourse Analysis: Basically, the discourse analysis identifies the linguistic dependencies which exist between sentences or utterances. Anyhow, it is really difficult to define the concept of discourse analysis. Instead of categorising it under the different kinds of research method.

Interview: Interview is a kind of face to face interaction which helps in providing more honest answers and responses from the sample, as the interviewer works directly with the respondent or the interviewee. Unlike questionnaires, the interviewer has an opportunity to ask follow-up questions.

2. Describe the characteristics and methods of sampling techniques.

Ans) Sampling strategies are widely utilized in quantifiable research, and their significance cannot be understated in any field of study. It is really important for the things we do every day. It aids in judging the survey's or research's degree of accuracy. If the sample contains an error, it will directly affect the outcome. Depending on the circumstances and requirements of the researcher, we can employ a variety of strategies to assist us in collecting a sample.

Characteristics of Sampling Technique

The following features highlight the importance and worth of sampling procedures.

 Cost & Time: It takes less time than the census method since it is extremely efficient and cost-effective. Method for Measuring Variables Across the Population.

1. Reliability: The results from the sample should be as reliable as those from a census survey if we carefully choose the sample units and the subject being studied is not diversified in nature.

2. In-depth Study: A sample contains a relatively small number of units, allowing for in-depth analysis and observation from a variety of perspectives.

3. Scientific Approach: The sampling technique uses a scientific methodology, and the findings from one set of units can be confirmed and used with other sets of units. By selecting random samples, it is possible to determine the departure from the norm.

4. Suitability: The majority of studies and surveys employ a sampling technique since it is sufficient to study a few units when the subject is not particularly diverse in nature.

Types of Sampling

There are numerous ways to create a sample from a set of data. The research approach will be determined by the problem, its size, and character, but the decision must be carefully thought through.

Non-Probability Sampling

1. Each person in the population does not have an equal chance of being chosen when using this sampling technique. We can infer that the sample does not accurately reflect the target population as a result. Additionally, it's possible that the participants in the study were picked on purpose by the researcher.

2. The majority of the time, case studies, pilot studies, and building hypotheses all use this population sampling technique.

3. Non-probability sampling is typically utilized in research when the population's parameters are not of interest. Some researchers use this method since it is simple, rapid, and affordable.

Probability Sampling

1. As the name implies, each member of the target population will have an equal possibility of being chosen for research using this sampling technique. This approach ensures that the procedure is entirely unbiased and randomized.

2. The simplest way to do this would be to write down each person's name who is part of the target population on a different piece of paper, and then randomly select each one until the sample size is reached.

3. The results from the statistical approaches are quite precise because of this randomized selection. Additionally, because this method is representative and eliminates sample bias, it is also used to estimate population parameters.

3. Elaborate upon the characteristics and types of qualitative research method.

Ans) A sort of scientific inquiry known as "qualitative research" aims to close gaps in knowledge, systematically gathers data, generates conclusions, and thereby seeks an answer to a problem or topic.

Types of Qualitative Research

Case Study: This approach is used to study a case involving a person, a group, an occasion, an institution, or a society. It aids in giving a thorough understanding of the nature, procedure, or phenomenon of a particular example under examination. In case study research, many data collection techniques are frequently utilized. The case and its background are comprehensively and richly described in the case study's final report.

Ethnography: This method mostly focuses on researching a certain community. It aims to examine a sociocultural phenomenon and is more of a form of intimate field observation. Using the cultural standards of the researchers, for instance, to judge other people. Ethnography, commonly referred to as "ethnology," is a method for comparing and contrasting different cultural groups.

Historical Method: This approach aids in comprehending and analysing the causal connections. With the aid of this technique, information on the occurrence of an event is gathered and assessed in order to comprehend the causes of such happenings.

Grounded Theory: With this method, the researcher actively participates in the activities of the group, culture, or community being studied. With the aid of observation, the necessary information's data is gathered. It typically aids in the creation or development of hypotheses.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Data Leads to Formation of Theory: In a qualitative study, the researcher gathers information by visiting the subjects, interacting with them, and conducting in-depth interviews. Thus, the information-rich data gathered serves as a foundation for the development of theories. As a result, the design is not predetermined or predefined in this research methodology before the study begins.

Context Bound Research: In qualitative research, particular investigations pertaining to context, culture, or society are conducted. The research is more context sensitive as a result. The daily events or activities of daily life are the subjects of the researchers' daily studies, and they must take into consideration all the events occurring in a given setting. They must set aside their biases and actively engage in the scenario or event as participants.

Involvement or Immersion of Researchers: As was already established, qualitative research involves fully immersing the researchers in the surroundings. They must actively participate in the activities in order to comprehend the phenomena or processes. They need to familiarize themselves with the society, culture, and context they will be studying even before they start gathering data.

Researcher-research Relationship: Since the purpose of qualitative research is to gather participants' original comments, the researcher must be objective and free of preconceived notions. The interaction between the researcher and research subjects should result in the gathering of accurate information free from prejudice.

Thick Description: Since the material gathered from the participants includes their responses, experiences, interpretations of events, and rituals, Geertz stated that immersing the researchers in the environment will help the researchers employ thick description. The researcher should give a detailed account of the incidents, procedures, phenomena, interview, and discussions with the participants.

Data Collection and Data Analysis Occur Simultaneously: The research scholar immerses himself or herself in the research environment to gather data using various methods, such as observation and interview, and he or she continuously analyses and interprets the data as well.

Assignment Two

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 5 marks. 8 x 5 = 40

4. Test Construction.

Ans) The following considerations should be taken while creating a strong, beneficial, and applicable questionnaire or schedule

1. Since it will serve as the basis for the questionnaire, the researcher must first identify the issue that they wish to investigate. The many aspects of the research problem that will be encountered while the research is conducted must be completely understood.

2. The type of information the researcher is looking for, the goal of the analysis, and the responders to the schedule/questionnaire all affect how questions should be phrased. The researcher should choose whether to utilize open-ended or closed-ended questions. They ought to be straightforward and developed with the intention that there would be an objective component to a planned tabulation strategy.

3. A researcher must create a rough draft of the timetable while carefully considering the order in which the questions should be presented. You can see samples of such questions from the past at this point.

4. By default, a researcher should review the preliminary manuscript and, if necessary, make adjustments to enhance it. Technical inconsistencies should be carefully examined and fixed, as necessary.

5. A pilot study should be used for pre-testing, and the questionnaire should be modified as needed.

5. Significance of report writing.

Ans) Writing the research report is one of its most crucial components since until it is provided, the research is considered to be insufficient. Even if the research study is expertly developed and carried out, the hypothesis is analytical, and the findings are ground-breaking, they are meaningless unless they are effectively presented. This emphasizes how crucial a research report is. Although some people might not think it's vital, the academic community as a whole views this as a crucial component of research. Since this is a crucial component, a researcher can seek the advice of experts on it. Any assistance is welcome.

6. Sampling Criteria

Ans) It alludes to the key traits of the subjects that must be established beforehand to assess whether they qualify to be included in the sample. These are chosen by a researcher based on their research question or objective. To put it simply, we must determine the purpose of our research before determining the qualities of the components or subjects that are necessary for us to examine the issue.

For instance, these traits might consist of only when participants are humans:

1. Age.

2. Status of marriage.

3. Male or female gender.

4. Academic level.

5. Ethnicity.

6. Whether they have a sickness.

7. Sort of therapy.

8. Languages possessed; etc.

7. Ex Post Facto Research Design.

Ans) Ex post facto research designs involve doing studies to determine the reasons behind events that have already happened. Due to the fact that participants cannot be assigned at random, the research design is also referred to as "after the fact" research and is regarded as quasi-experimental. Although the participants can be categorized according to attributes like age and weight and compared with regard to independent and dependent variables, a proper experiment cannot be conducted because randomization is not used.

For instance, a researcher is keen to investigate how adults' self-esteem levels are influenced by their height. As a result, the participants would be divided into three different height groups (short, medium, and tall) and their levels of self-esteem would be assessed. Because the groups were created using a pre-existing attribute (height), this design is ex post facto.

8. Characteristics of Quantitative Research Design.

Ans) The following are some particular traits that apply to quantitative research:

Research Questions: In quantitative research, the researcher formulates precise research questions based on the study problem, and objective responses to these questions are sought.

Representative Sample: The researcher chooses a representative sample of the target population for data collection. These samples are typical of the population, allowing for appropriate generalization of the findings to the relevant populations.

Deals with Variables: In quantitative research, the researcher manipulates and even controls extraneous/controlled variables that may have an impact on the research study depending on the needs.

Involves Data Collection: The focus of quantitative research is numbers, and the researcher collects the data using standardized or structured research instruments. In order to analyse the data, empirical evidence is used. The information is gathered in the form of numbers and statistics, and is frequently presented in tables, charts, and other non-textual formats.

9. Definition, Goals, Principles of Psychological Research.

Ans) Definition of Research: Simply said, research is "a methodical inquiry to find solutions to a problem.

Goals of Psychological Research: Understanding how people and animals behave is the major objective of psychology research. And the more that can be learned about human behaviour by researchers, the better off society as a whole and individuals in particular will be. For instance, gaining a better understanding of youth aggression can aid in the development of effective intervention.

Characteristics of Psychological Research: A solid psychological study follows a methodical, scientific approach. Along with being verifiable and repeatable, it must also be valid. In addition to being rational, a good psychological study should allow for the development of ideas and guiding principles based on the findings. Thus, a study could be conducted to examine a certain hypothesis methodically and scientifically or set of hypotheses, and this is accomplished by limiting the impact of unrelated or confusing variables.

10. Formulation of Hypotheses.

Ans) Observation, hypothesis creation, and hypothesis testing are all steps in the scientific method. A hypothesis is a speculative answer to a question. It alludes to presumptions that are formed before the study process even begins. The hypothesis can be accepted or rejected by the researcher once it has been put to the test using various statistical tests. If the hypothesis is correct, the researcher can repeat the findings; if it is incorrect, the researcher can edit or improve the findings. By formulating a specific hypothesis, the researcher can focus the data collecting effort and create a data collection method that is intended to evaluate the hypothesis' plausibility as a possible explanation for the relationship between the variables in the research problem. Therefore, having a distinct idea and vision of the hypothesis is usually beneficial. The research question is crucial for the researcher to confirm because it will guide and considerably assist in the interpretation of the findings.

11. Constructs.

Ans) The definitions of "concept" and "construct" are similar. But there is a crucial difference. Any describable regularity of actual or hypothetical events or objects can be referred to as a notion. An idea is a group of characteristics bound together by a rule. Concepts serve as the foundation for thought. They enable us to systematically organize knowledge. Concept stands for the goals of actions, concepts, or living things. Additionally, a concept might be an abstraction or a relationship between aspects.

For instance, "achievement." It is an abstraction created as a result of seeing specific child behaviours. These behaviours are linked to the mastering or "learning" of academic tasks, such as reading words, solving math problems, drawing images, and other similar activities. Achievement, intellect, aggressiveness, conformity, and honesty are all ideas used to convey different types of human behaviour of interest to behavioural scientists.

These behaviours are joined together and articulated in a word. Researchers frequently create new ideas or construct existing ones to serve certain scientific aims; these ideas are known as constructs. You could therefore explain construct as a concept. It also has the additional sense of being created or accepted for a particular scientific objective.