Assignment Code: BPCG-171 / Asst /TMA /2021-22

Course Code: BPCG-171

Assignment Name: General Psychology

Year: 2021 – 2022 (July 2021 & January 2022 Sessions)

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Note:

There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the Sections.

Assignment – I

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

Q1. Describe the theories and ways of assessing the intelligence. 10 + 10

Ans) Some of the theories and ways for assessing Intelligence are:

Theories of Intelligence Charles Spearman

The father of factor analysis. -posited the existence of a g factor (general intelligence) and s factors (specific intelligence) - “g” the term introduced by Spearman to describe his concept of a general intelligence - g factor represents the elements that tests have in common. - s factor represents the elements unique to a given test. Raymond B. Cattell - Emphasized the centrality of g. -offered a tentative list of 17 primary ability concepts. -Described two important second-order factors that seem to represent a partitioning of Spearman’s g into two components: a. Fluid ability – the persons genetically based intellectual capacity. b. Crystallized ability – refers to the capacities obtained through culture-based learning.

Theories of Intelligence L. L. Thurstone

A critic of Spearman’s g. - Suggested seven clusters of Primary Mental Abilities: numerical ability, word fluency, verbal meaning, perceptual speed, reasoning, and memory. Guilford-Proposed the Structure of the Intellect (SOI) Model. -Reasoned that the components of intelligence could be organized into three dimensions: operations, content, and products.

Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The human intellectual competence involves a set of problem- solving skills that enable the person to resolve problems of difficulties. Gardner suggest that there is a family of six intelligences: Linguistic, Musical, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, and Personal (intrapersonal and interpersonal)

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Maintains that people function based on three aspects of Intelligence: a. Component - refers to analytical thinking; high scores would characterize the person who is a good test-taker. b. Experiential – relates to creative thinking and characterizes the person who can take separate elements of experience and combine them insightfully. c. Contextual – is seen in the person who is “street smart”—one who knows how to play the game and can successfully manipulate the environment.

The Intelligence Quotient(IQ)

This is a mathematical formula that is supposed to be a measure of a person's intelligence. Ratio IQ -Stern (1938) developed the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) to circumvent several problems that had arisen in using the difference between the chronological age (CA) and the mental age (MA)to express deviance. Deviation IQ -Wechsler introduced the concept of deviation IQ. -The assumption is made that intelligence is normally distributed throughout the population. - a deviation IQ then involves a comparison of an individual’s performance on IQ test with that of his or her age peers.

The Clinical Assessment of Intelligence The Stanford-Binet Scales

For many years, the Binet scales were the preferred tests. They underwent many revisions after Binet’s work in 1905. The most recent revision of the scale appeared in 1986, the Standford-Binet Fourth Edition, or Sb-4. The Standford-Binet Fourth Edition (SB-4) contains four general classes of items, and each class consists of several kinds of sub- tests: 1. Verbal Reasoning – vocabulary, comprehension, absurdities, and verbal relations. 2. Quantitative Reasoning - quantitative, number series, equation building. 3. Abstract/Visual Reasoning - pattern analysis, copying, matrices, paper folding and cutting. 4. Short-term Memory – bead memory, memory for sentences, memory for digits, memory for objects.

The Clinical Assessment of Intelligence The Wechsler Scales

David Wechsler published the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale in 1939. Subsequent revisions of this test have become the most widely used techniques to assess intellectual functioning. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition - The most recent revision of WAIS that was introduced in 1997 - An adult intelligence test comprised of both verbal scale and a performance scale, each of which consists of several subtests. - The WAIS-III yields a verbal IQ, a Performance IQ, and a full-scale IQ, in addition to Index scores - The seven major IQ: Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, Full Scale IQ, Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Working Memory, and Processing Speed.

The Clinical Assessment of Intelligence

Following are brief description of the 14 WAIS-III subtests. The First seven constitute the Verbal Subtests; the other seven are the Performance subtests. 1. Vocabulary - Here, the examinee must define words that increase in difficulty. 2. Similarities – This subtest consists of 19 items, and for each one, the examinee must explain how two objects are alike. Ex. Space-Time 3. Arithmetic – these 20 items are like Arithmetic problems on most textbooks. The items are administered orally, and the examinee is not allowed to use paper and pencil. 4. Digit span – This subtest is a measure of short-term memory and attention. Two sets of digits are read aloud by the examiner. For the first list, the examinee must repeat the digits in order that they were read. For the second list, the digits must be repeated backwards.

Q2. Elaborate upon the stages and laws of perception. 20

Ans) This section will explain in detail the stages involved in perception as well as the factors affecting these stages.

Stage I: Selection

The first stage of perception is “selection”. Since our brain has limited capacity, therefore, it cannot attend to all stimuli at a time. We unconsciously or consciously select some stimuli and ignore others. The selected stimulus becomes the “attended stimulus”.

Stage II: Organization

In the second stage of the process of perception, stimuli are arranged mentally in a meaningful pattern. This process occurs unconsciously. Gestalt psychologists have proposed many principles for organising stimuli. Such as, ‘figure-ground relationship’, ‘law of proximity’, ‘law of closure’ etc. It explains how humans naturally organize stimuli to make a meaningful pattern and thus interpretation.

Stage III: Interpretation

In this last stage, meaning is assigned to the organized stimuli. Interpretation of the stimuli is based on one’s experiences, expectations, needs, beliefs, and other factors. Thus, this stage is subjective in nature and the same stimuli can be interpreted differently by different individuals.

Laws of perception

The laws state how designers can use various techniques to help learners organize and structure graphical information effectively. By simply understanding how our visual system works, we can convert this knowledge into rules for displaying information in our courses for content to be more comprehensible and straightforward.

Law of Similarity

The law of similarity states that learners will group things together that have a similar appearance. Basically, grouping like-objects is an organizational tool of the unconscious mind. Things that are alike are perceived as more related than things that are different. Similar appearance may even equate to similar function: the reason why designs tend to use blue, underlined links, or otherwise make links appear distinct from other text but the same as each other.

Additionally, similarity plays a significant role in creating unity — the more alike two items are, the more likely they are to form a group. Likewise, dissimilar items usually appear more varied and resist grouping. The three main ways to create similarity (or dissimilarity) are shape, size, and colour.

Law of Proximity

According to this principle, users assume that components spaced closely to one another are related and vice versa. As our brain naturally groups closer elements together into a coherent whole, cognitive load is reduced and information is easier to learn by relieving learners of the need to process a large amount of small stimuli.

Law of Simplicity

Also called law of Prägnanz or law of good figure, the law of simplicity is central to gestalt. It states that users perceive objects in an environment in a way that makes the object appear as simple as possible: they see the screen instead of a collection of components. Users prefer things that are clear and ordered as such objects take less time to process and are less likely to be dangerous surprises.

Law of Closure

The law of closure is concerned with simplicity; however, instead alluding to combinations of parts to make a simpler whole, it refers the learners’ ability to fill in missing information based on their past experiences. It states that when learners see a complex arrangement of elements, they seek simple, recognizable patterns while their brains ignore contradictory information.

Assignment – II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

Q3. Discuss the various methods and applications of Psychology. 10

Ans) There are various methods to study psychology. Three major methods of psychological inquiry.

Experimental Method

In this method investigation starts with defining a research problem. With the help of available literature, appropriate hypotheses are generated. Then experiment is conducted to test proposed hypotheses. The investigator manipulates an independent variable and studies its effect on dependent variables.

Correlation Method

This method investigates the co-variability between two variables of study. If change in one variable leads to change in another, then we can suggest that some degree of correlation exists between these two variables. The correlation value is measured in terms of correlation coefficient, r. The value of correlation coefficient can vary from +1 to -1. The value of +1 represents a perfect positive correlation, -1 represents perfect negative correlation. Whereas r = 0 represent zero correlation.

Observation Method

It involves studying a phenomenon by observing it. The researcher simply makes systematic observation of the event or behaviour in its natural environment. After making observation for several times, researcher attempts to seek the reasons behind it.

Applications of Psychology

Clinical Psychology: A clinical psychologist does psychotherapy; investigates clinical problems; develops methods of treatment.

Community Psychology: Community psychologists apply psychological principles, ideas, and points of view to help solve social problems and to help individuals in adapting to their work and living groups.

Counselling Psychology: This branch deals with helping people/individuals with personal problems including interpersonal relations, career choice, mild emotional troubles, or behavioural problems such as overeating, slow learning or lack of concentration.

Educational Psychology: This branch deals with broader problem of increasing the efficiency of learning in school by applying psychological knowledge of learning and motivation to the curriculum.

Forensic Psychology: The field Investigates problems of crime and crime prevention, rehabilitation programs, prisons, courtroom dynamics; selects candidates for police work.

Industrial/Organisational Psychology: The field investigates all aspects of behaviour in work setting ranging from selection and recruitment of employees, performance appraisal, work motivation to leadership.

Environmental Psychology: The field studies the effects of urban noise, crowding, attitudes toward the environment, and human use of space.

Health Psychology: The field of health psychology studies the relationship between behaviour and health; uses psychological principles to promote health and prevent illness.

Q4. Explain the structure of nervous system. 10

Ans) The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical wiring.

Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. According to the National Institutes of Health, the central nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, ganglia (clusters of neurons) and nerves that connect to one another and to the central nervous system.

Functionally, the nervous system has two main subdivisions: the somatic, or voluntary, component; and the autonomic, or involuntary, component. The autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and the rate of breathing, that work without conscious effort, according to Merck Manuals. The somatic system consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin.

In biology, the classical doctrine of the nervous system determines that it is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago.

Q5. Explain the process of thinking. 10

Ans) Thinking process is a mechanism that allows one to verbalize, construct, analyse, and communicate cause and effect relationship and to suggest feasible solutions to problems. Thinking validates existing knowledge. It enables an individual to create knowledge, build ideas and build connections between them. It entails reasoning and inquiry together with processing and evaluating information. It enables the exploration of perceptions and possibilities.

We think either in words or mental images. The thought we “hear” in our mind in the form of statements or words is known as propositional thought. Sentences such as “one should not waste water” or “black is a beautiful colour” are proposing or claiming something. Therefore, it is called as propositional thought. Another mode of thinking is visual thought or imaginal thought. It is the type of thought that we “see” in our mind. These are the two primary modes of thinking.

To understand imaginal thought, first, we need to understand “mental images” and to understand propositional thought, we need to understand the meaning of “concept.” Concepts help us in reducing the mental complexity of our world by categorising it into manageable information. Further, it helps us in developing prototypes of the concepts. A prototype is the typical example of the concept or a set of characteristics representing the best example of the concept.

Thinking is not a passive act - we keep relating one concept to another to understand our world in a better way. According to propositional theory, also called as conceptual-propositional theory, we think not regarding words or images only but also their concerned meanings.

Assignment – III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

Q6. Functions of emotions. 6

Ans) The functions of emotions are discussed as follows:

1. Emotions prepares an individual for action: Emotions serve as a link between the situation and the individual’s reaction. For example, if an individual is crossing a road and suddenly sees a truck coming his/ her, the emotional reaction that he would display, that of fear, would be linked with the physiological arousal.

2. Emotions play a role in shaping of future behaviour of an individual: Learning takes place because of emotions experienced by us and thus for example, the situations that evoke negative emotions are avoided by us.

3. Emotions help in effective interaction with others: Emotions that are communicated via verbal and nonverbal communications may help individuals interact with each other more efficiently, as emotions act as signals thus helping individuals understand what the other person is experiencing.

Q7. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. 6

Ans) Maslow's hierarchy of needs is used to study how humans intrinsically partake in behavioural motivation. Maslow used the terms "physiological", "safety", "belonging and love", "social needs" or "esteem", and "self-actualization" to describe the pattern through which human motivations generally move. This means that for motivation to arise at the next stage, each stage must be satisfied within the individual themselves.

Additionally, this hierarchy is a main base in knowing how effort and motivation are correlated when discussing human behaviour. Each of these individual levels contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must be met for an individual to complete their hierarchy. The goal in Maslow's hierarchy is to attain the fifth level or stage: self-actualization.

Q8. Concept of problem solving. 6

Ans) Problem-solving isa process of solving any kind of problem. This process is acted upon in some steps. These steps start from identifying the problem and determining the cause of the problem. After the problem and its cause are identified, the next step is to select alternatives for the solution and implement the solutions. Problem solving consists of using generic or ad hoc methods in an orderly manner to find solutions to difficulties.

Some of the problem-solving techniques developed and used in philosophy, medicine, societies, mathematics, engineering, computer science, and artificial intelligence in general are related to mental problem-solving techniques studied in psychology and cognitive sciences.

Q9. Freud’s psychosexual stage of development. 6

Ans) Freud proposed a five-stage model of development of personality. According to him, core aspects of one’s personality developed by the age of five and remain unchanged throughout. Further, he stated that to move from one stage to another, a child needs to resolve conflicts of each stage successfully. Unless it will lead to fixation- a continuation of an early mode of satisfaction in later life. For example, individual fixated at oral stage may have drinking or smoking habits. Following are five stages of psychosexual development;   

1. Stage I: Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)

2. Stage II: Anal Stage (18 months to three years)

3. Stage III: Phallic Stage (three to five years)

4. Stage IV: Latency Stage (six to twelve years)

5. Stage V: Genital Stage (thirteen years to adulthood)

Q10. Lifespan perspective on development. 6

Ans) The life span perspective conceptualizes human behaviour as influenced by developmental processes across biological, historical, sociocultural, and psychological factors from conception to death. It extended the theoretical focus of historically traditional developmental psychology with a focus on intra-individual processes for incorporating sociocultural influences. This allows researchers to evaluate the impact of social experiences on psychosocial processes and behavioural outcomes for children of colour. Some of the most prolific work that exemplifies this perspective focuses on the role of racial socialization and intergenerational communication on children's racial attitudes and preferences. Socialization opportunities exist in contexts where children have experiences and receive feedback about the explicit and implicit meanings regarding behaviour and expectations.