Assignment Code: BPSC-101/ASST/TMA/2023-24

Course Code: BPSC-101

Assignment Name: Understanding Political Theory

Year: 2023-24

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Assignment – I

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

Q1) Discuss the revival of political theory.

Ans) The revival of political theory in recent years marks a significant shift in the academic and public discourse, reflecting a renewed interest in the fundamental questions about governance, rights, justice, and the role of the state. This resurgence can be attributed to several factors, including global political upheavals, the emergence of new social movements, and the challenges posed by technological advancement and environmental crises. The revival is not merely a return to classical political theories but an expansion and reinterpretation of political thought that seeks to address the complexities of the 21st century.

The revival has seen a re-engagement with the works of classical theorists such as Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, with a focus on their relevance to contemporary issues. Scholars and political theorists are revisiting these foundational texts to explore concepts of democracy, authority, and the social contract, drawing parallels and contrasts with modern political systems. This classical perspective provides a lens through which to examine and critique current political structures and ideologies, offering insights into the nature of power, citizenship, and governance.

In addition to classical theory, there has been a surge in interest in critical and post-modern theories that challenge traditional narratives and structures of power. Feminist theory, post-colonial theory, and critical race theory, among others, have gained prominence, highlighting issues of inequality, identity, and the politics of representation. These perspectives broaden the scope of political theory, incorporating voices and experiences that have been historically marginalized or overlooked. By doing so, political theory becomes more inclusive and reflective of the diversity of human experience, providing a richer understanding of political dynamics.

The digital age has also necessitated a re-examination of political theory, particularly in the context of information technology, social media, and surveillance. Theories of privacy, public space, and freedom of expression are being re-evaluated in light of digital communication's capacity to both empower and control. The impact of technology on democracy, from online voting to social media's role in shaping public opinion and political mobilization, is a key area of inquiry. This intersection of technology and politics requires a new theoretical framework that can address the challenges and opportunities of digital governance.

On top of that, the global environmental crisis has prompted a resurgence in political theory that examines the connection that exists between people and the natural world. Traditional political philosophy is characterised by its anthropocentric assumptions, which are challenged by ecological political theories. These theories advocate for sustainable practices and policies that acknowledge the connection of human and ecological systems for a sustainable future. Consequently, this has resulted in conversations about rights, justice, and governance that extend beyond human societies and incorporate environmental concerns.

The field of political theory provides essential insights on the nature of power, governance, and justice by drawing from a variety of sources, including both classical and contemporary scholarly works. Inequality and oppression, technological change, and environmental degradation are only some of the numerous difficulties that modern civilizations are currently confronting. This framework gives a foundation for analysing and addressing these diverse challenges.

Q2) Explain Ralph Miliband’s views on the state.

Ans) Ralph Miliband's examination of the state is a cornerstone of Marxist political theory, offering a critical perspective that challenges conventional views on the role and nature of state power in capitalist societies. His analysis, most notably articulated in works like "The State in Capitalist Society" (1969), emphasizes the state's function as an instrument for maintaining the conditions and relations of production that favour the capitalist class. Miliband's arguments are grounded in a detailed empirical and theoretical critique of liberal-democratic institutions, illustrating how these structures are intertwined with the interests of economic elites.

Miliband disputed the pluralist view that in liberal democracies, power is dispersed among various competing groups, asserting instead that the state acts to serve and protect the interests of the capitalist class. He argued that while the state appears to be above society, serving the common interest or the general will, in reality, it is deeply embedded within the structures of capitalist society. This critique centres on the idea that the state, regardless of its democratic features, is biased towards the maintenance of a system that ensures the dominance of a minority owning class.

One of Miliband's key contributions is his analysis of the personnel of the state – the politicians, civil servants, and military officers – and their class backgrounds and affiliations. He pointed out that individuals in key positions within the state apparatus often come from or are closely connected to the capitalist class, either through education, marriage, or professional networks. This, according to Miliband, creates a situation where those in power have a vested interest in preserving the status quo, leading to policies and practices that inherently favour capital accumulation and protect property rights over broader social needs.

Miliband also tackled the ideological functions of the state, highlighting how state institutions work to legitimize the capitalist system through education, media, and other cultural means. This aspect of his theory underscores the importance of ideological domination, or hegemony, as a means by which the state secures consent for the capitalist order, thus reducing the need for overt coercion.

Furthermore, Miliband explored the state's role in managing class conflict, asserting that while the state may occasionally enact reforms that appear to benefit the working class, these concessions are ultimately aimed at preserving social harmony within the parameters of capitalism. Such measures, in his view, are tactical responses designed to prevent radical challenges to the capitalist system rather than indicative of the state's benevolence towards the working class.

In his latter works, Miliband explored the subject of how the state may be reshaped to suit different, more equitable objectives. He examined how this transformation could take place. He advocated for a political approach that included both legislative and extra-parliamentary activity in order to redistribute power and resources in a more equitable manner. He was particularly interested in the possibility of democratic socialism. His contemplations on the opportunities and obstacles that could be encountered in order to achieve substantial democratic control over the state and economy continue to have an impact on the ongoing discussions that are taking place about socialism and political strategy.

Assignment - II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

Q1) Write a note on Modern Liberalism / Welfarism.

Ans) Modern Liberalism, also referred to as Social Liberalism or Welfarism, represents an evolution of classical liberal thought, adapting its core principles to address the complexities of modern industrial and post-industrial societies. At its heart, Modern Liberalism seeks to balance individual freedom with social justice, emphasizing the role of the state in correcting market failures, reducing inequalities, and providing a safety net for its citizens.

This philosophy acknowledges that freedom requires more than the absence of restraint; it also necessitates a degree of economic and social security that allows individuals to truly exercise their liberties. Thus, Modern Liberals advocate for policies that support education, healthcare, and social services, funded through progressive taxation, to ensure that all members of society have the opportunity to succeed.

The emergence of Modern Liberalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was a response to the social and economic challenges posed by rapid industrialization, including stark inequalities and the exploitation of workers. Figures such as John Stuart Mill, T.H. Green, and L.T. Hobhouse argued that government intervention is necessary to protect individual rights and promote the general welfare.

In practice, Modern Liberalism has influenced the development of welfare states in many democratic countries, with the aim of achieving greater social justice and economic stability. It advocates for regulation, redistribution, and the provision of public goods as measures to promote a more equitable society. It is in favour of a mixed economy, which is a system in which both the market and the government play significant roles in the allocation of resources and opportunities.

Q2) What do you understand by Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism? Elaborate.

Ans) Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism represent two distinct strategies within socialist thought, differing primarily in their approaches to achieving a socialist society.

Evolutionary Socialism, often associated with democratic socialism or social democracy, argues for a gradual transition to socialism through democratic means. This approach emphasizes reforming capitalist systems from within, using existing political structures to enact progressive legislation, redistribute wealth, and expand public services. Evolutionary socialists believe in working through parliamentary democracy to achieve social change, arguing that it is possible to transform society incrementally without resorting to violent revolution. Figures such as Eduard Bernstein are closely associated with this perspective, advocating for a pragmatic approach that focuses on immediate improvements in workers' rights and welfare while working towards broader societal transformation.

Revolutionary Socialism, on the other hand, maintains that capitalism cannot be reformed in a way that would lead to true equality and social justice. Instead, it calls for a radical overthrow of the capitalist system through direct action, which could include strikes, protests, and, if necessary, armed rebellion. The assumption that the capitalist state and its institutions are intrinsically antagonistic to socialist objectives and will always resist real attempts to redistribute power and wealth is the foundation upon which this approach is built. Key proponents of this view include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who maintained that a revolutionary class struggle is required to demolish the control of the bourgeoisie and build a proletariat state that would pave the way for socialism and, eventually, communism. Marx and Engels were among the most influential individuals in this ideology.

Q3) What is Conservatism? Explain with reference to the views of Edmund Burke.

Ans) Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that prioritizes the preservation of traditional institutions, customs, and values, advocating for a cautious approach to change. Central to conservative thought is the belief in the importance of stability, order, and continuity within society. Edmund Burke, often regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism, articulated a vision of conservatism that emphasizes the complexity of social institutions and the limits of human reason.

Burke’s views, most famously expressed in his critique of the French Revolution in "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790), argue against radical change and the dangers of dismantling established traditions and institutions. He believed that society’s complexities are such that no single generation has the wisdom to design perfect institutions from scratch. Instead, Burke advocated for gradual change that builds on the accumulated wisdom of past generations. He saw traditional institutions as embodying the collective wisdom and experience of society, which, though not perfect, provide a stable and tested framework for governance.

Burke’s conservatism is not about resisting all change but about recognizing the value of continuity and the risks of radical, untested alterations to society's foundational structures. He believed in the principle of organic change—evolution rather than revolution—where reforms are made in accordance with historical experiences and in a manner that respects the social fabric.

This view is sceptical of political rationalism, arguing that reason alone cannot build a just society without historical context and practical experience. Burke bases morality and politics on time-tested norms and traditions.

Assignment - III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

Q1) Write a note on the Second Wave of feminist political theory.

Ans) The Second Wave of feminist political theory, emerging in the 1960s and lasting until the late 1980s, expanded feminism's scope beyond the first wave's focus on suffrage and legal rights. It delved into deeper social, cultural, and political issues affecting women, including workplace inequality, reproductive rights, and the personal as political. Theories of patriarchy, gender roles, and sexual politics were developed, emphasizing the systemic nature of women's oppression. Influential texts like Simone de Beauvoir's "The Second Sex" and Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" critiqued societal constructs of femininity and sparked a re-evaluation of women's roles in society. This wave laid the groundwork for subsequent feminist discourse, broadening the movement's philosophical and activist dimensions.

Q2) Examine Jacques Derrida’s views on Post –Modernism.

Ans) Jacques Derrida, a key figure in post-structuralism, is often associated with post-modernism through his critique of the foundational assumptions of Western philosophy. His concept of deconstruction challenges the idea of fixed meanings, arguing instead for the inherent instability and multiplicity of texts. Derrida’s work questions the binary oppositions central to Western thought (such as presence/absence, speech/writing), suggesting that these dichotomies are constructions that both define and limit understanding. While not explicitly aligning himself with post-modernism, Derrida’s ideas contribute to its ethos by undermining the grand narratives and certainties that characterized modernist thinking, promoting a scepticism towards universal truths and emphasizing the fluidity of meaning.

Q3) Write a note on type of democracy.

Ans) Democracy can be broadly categorized into two main types: direct and representative. In direct democracy, citizens participate directly in decision-making processes, as seen in ancient Athens where eligible citizens voted on laws themselves. This form is rare today due to the impracticality of scaling it for large populations. The most popular form, representative democracy, elects officials to make decisions for citizens. This type includes variations like parliamentary democracy, where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature, and presidential democracy, characterized by a separation of powers between the executive and the legislative branches. Both kinds seek public sovereignty, but scale, efficiency, and history determine how they do so.

Q4) Examine representative democracy.

Ans) Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which elected officials represent a group of people, making decisions and creating laws on their behalf. This system allows for a more manageable and efficient governance structure, especially in large or complex societies, by delegating the responsibility of decision-making to representatives chosen through elections. These representatives are accountable to the electorate for their actions and decisions in office. The system balances effective governance with democratic people's sovereignty by allowing popular engagement through elections. Representative democracy can be parliamentary or presidential, with different methods of electing and organising government. This democratic approach ensures that political processes address different population interests.

Q5) Write a note on democracy and elections.

Ans) Democracy and elections are intrinsically linked, with elections serving as the cornerstone of democratic governance. Elections enable citizens to express their preferences for leaders and policies, ensuring that government reflects the will of the people. Through regular, free, and fair elections, democracy provides a mechanism for the peaceful transition of power and the accountability of leaders to their constituents. This approach promotes debate, consensus-building, and policy changes in response to popular demand by representing multiple views and interests in politics. Elections empower people by encouraging engagement and investment in politics and its outcomes. Thus, democratic legitimacy and stability depend on election integrity.