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BPSC-103: Political Theory – Concepts and Debates

BPSC-103: Political Theory – Concepts and Debates

IGNOU Solved Assignment Solution for 2022-23

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Assignment Code: BPSC-103/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: BPSC-103

Assignment Name: Political Theory – Concepts and Debates

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

 

There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the  Sections.

 


Assignment - I

 


Answer the following in about 500 words each.

 

Q1) Examine the notion of liberty. 20

Ans) It is believed that Mill's writings present the unfavourable theory of liberty. According to Mill, liberty should promote the development of "individuality." Individuality is the distinct and singular quality that makes each human being wholly unique, and freedom is the realisation of that quality, i.e., personal development or self-determination. Humans' inherent uniqueness made them proactive rather than passive and critical of prevalent social norms, allowing them to reject conventions unless they were deemed to be legitimate. The 'apelike' talent of mimicry seemed to be the only ability he or she possessed. People needed to fight against influences or norms and practises that prevented self-determination in order to realise their individuality and, in turn, achieve the condition of freedom. However, Mill also believed that relatively few people had the ability to rebel and exercise free will. The others were content to live in "unfreedom" by submitting to "apelike mimicry." This makes Mill's idea of liberty seem elitist as only a small group, not the general populace, could benefit from individualism.

 

Two Concepts of Liberty, his now-classic work, Isaiah Berlin strives to balance opposing views on liberty, such as the idea that liberty is the lack of restrictions and the diverse viewpoints on how it functions in the context of society. A unique theory of the self is involved in the theory. The higher and lower selves of the personality are separated. In contrast to the lower self, which satisfies an individual's irrational, ephemeral needs, the higher self is the wellspring of that person's sincere and reasonable long-term aspirations. A person is only truly free to the extent that his or her higher self has control over their lower selves. So, while a person may be free in the sense that they are not constrained by outside forces, they may nevertheless be subject to illogical cravings, making them unfree, much like a drug addict, alcoholic, or compulsive gambler. The primary characteristic of this idea is that it is explicitly evaluative; also, it is used only in relation to idealistic lifestyles. The concept of positive liberty requires a unique interpretation of the self and does not simply presume that there is a field of endeavour in which the person should focus. According to the idea, when someone is pointed in its direction, they are liberated.

 

Marxists would regard the notion of liberty based on the liberal notion of the person and society as circumstances of unfreedom because they believe that the individual and his freedom of choice are important to the liberal perspective. Marxists believe that the boundaries of autonomous spaces for the free exercise of choice do not divide the person from other members of society. They are actually quite dependent on one another. Likewise, the idea of individuality is changed into the idea of rich individuality, which emphasises the social embeddedness of the individual and the notion that people can only achieve a state of creative excellence and develop their capacities in a society that seeks the development of all of its members. Marx believed that capitalism employees experience alienation because they are cut off from their actual nature. They are alienated from the things they produce through their labour, from the labour process itself, from other people, and eventually from their "true" selves. Since only unalienated labour may lead to personal fulfilment, freedom is consequently tied to it.

 

Q2) Discuss Sir Isaiah Berlin’s Two Concepts of liberty. 20

Ans) Libertarians define liberty as the lack of restrictions. When one's activities and decisions are unhindered or unrestricted by those of another, one is said to be free or at liberty to do so. It is crucial to realise that restrictions refer to obstacles put in place by governmental and other authorities. Therefore, terms like imprisonment, bondage or servitude, submission to the law, etc., may be understood to refer to situations where freedom is not present. We know that modern democratic social and political organisations are established on legal and institutional structures, which attempt to ensure equal respect of each individual's liberty, even when states of unfreedom like imprisonment or submission to laws may appear to be restrictions on freedom. Therefore, no community will have an unrestricted "right to liberty." Every civilization will have a set of constraints on liberty, which are justifiable because people accept them as the ideal circumstances for maximising liberty.

 

Two Concepts of Liberty, his now-classic work, Isaiah Berlin strives to balance opposing views on liberty, such as the idea that liberty is the lack of restrictions and the diverse viewpoints on how it functions in the context of society. By asking, "What is the region within which the subject - a person or group of persons - is or should be permitted to do or be what he is able to be, without interference from other persons?," Berlin's "negative" conception of liberty can be understood. The topic of "what, or who, is the source of control or interference that can determine someone to do, or be, this rather than that" is addressed in the positive meaning, on the other hand.

 

On the other side, positive liberty views freedom as "self-mastery" rather than merely being left alone. A unique theory of the self is involved in the theory. The higher and lower selves of the personality are separated. In contrast to the lower self, which satisfies an individual's irrational, ephemeral needs, the higher self is the wellspring of that person's sincere and reasonable long-term aspirations. A person is only truly free to the extent that his or her higher self has control over their lower selves. So, while a person may be free in the sense that they are not constrained by outside forces, they may nevertheless be subject to illogical cravings, making them unfree, much like a drug addict, alcoholic, or compulsive gambler. The primary characteristic of this idea is that it is explicitly evaluative; also, it is used only in relation to idealistic lifestyles. The concept of positive liberty requires a unique interpretation of the self and does not simply presume that there is a field of endeavour in which the person should focus.

 

According to the idea, when someone is pointed in its direction, they are liberated. A belief in positive liberty, according to critics of Berlin's theory, may imply the assumption that all other values, such as equality, rights, and justice, are secondary to the supreme value of higher liberty. Additionally, the promotion of totalitarian ideologies may result from the notion that an individual's higher goals are similar to those of collectivities like classes, nations, and races.

 

 

Assignment - II

 


Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

 

Q1) Elaborate upon the problems of Alienation. 10

Ans) The problems of Alienation are as follows:

 

Content: In addition to determining whether existing work is appropriately characterised as alienated (as forced, frustrating self-realization, not intended to satisfy the needs of others, and not appropriately appreciated by those others), one would need to determine whether, in that case, it could be made meaningful and unalienated without undermining the very characteristics that made the relevant society a capitalist one. It is obvious that in order to make anything resembling a thoughtful decision on these empirical and quasi-empirical concerns, complex factual analyses of, among other things, the makeup and functioning of human nature and the current social environment, will be necessary.

 

Extent: People's levels of estrangement are quite context-dependent. First, that some systematic forms of alienation, like alienation from one's job, are not a universal aspect of human society. Second, that at least some systematic forms of alienation, like religious alienation, are common in pre-capitalist societies. Third, that systematic forms of alienation are more prevalent in modern capitalist societies than in pre-capitalist societies. The degree of estrangement in any given situation is incredibly difficult to quantify.

 

Prognosis: Marx predicted that in a communist society, systematic types of alienation, such as alienation at work, would not exist. Marx's perspective on communism is fundamentally based on the conclusion that systematic forms of alienation in capitalist society are caused by social relations, not by the society's physical or technological configurations. However, Marx is unable to provide any significant debate of how precisely alienation will be diminished, if not eliminated, due to his inability to say very much, in any serious detail, about the future nature of socialist society.

 

Q2) Examine the concept of equality of opportunity. 10

Ans) An incredibly appealing concept that is concerned with what is considered to be the beginning point in life is equality of opportunity. The inference is that for there to be equality, all people must start off on an even playing field. In this way, it would appear that equality of opportunity gives everyone the same chance to compete in a hierarchical society. If that's the case, it doesn't seem like a very egalitarian principle. Thus, equality of opportunity is a sign of an unequal society, even if it is founded on the lofty ideal of merit.

 

The acceptability of maintaining open careers to talents, offering fair equal chance, and the several variations on the idea of positive discrimination all contribute to the institutionalisation of equality of opportunity. All of these contribute to the appearance of rationale and acceptability in the system of inequality. The essential premise is that advantage itself is unaffected by criticism as long as the competition has been fair. Without a doubt, a system like this would produce individuals who focus solely on their unique skills and personality traits. Because they are only capable of thinking in terms of competition, this robs them of any sense of community with their people.

 

It is clear from this that the liberal view of equality is grounded in equality of opportunity. Due to the fact that these are chances that result in unequal outcomes, this advocacy runs counter to any genuine notion of equality. As a result, this principle doesn't care about the results and is just concerned with the process. This is fully consistent with the liberal notion that people are the fundamental building block of society and that we should enable people to pursue their own interests.

 

Q3) Write a note on equality of capability. 10

Ans) Amartya Sen popularised this strategy in his studies on equality. According to Amartya Sen, distribution should be based on the numerous things a person can do or be during their lives. The ability of a person to maintain a condition, such as proper nutrition or good health, must be the key consideration when assessing a person's well-being. Sen claims that "capabilities" are a measurement of the equality of capabilities that allow people to have fulfilling lives. However, this strategy has drawn criticism for being overly open-ended and burdened with the challenge of assessing wellbeing as a barometer for equality.

 

The capacities approach directly addresses the level of life quality that individuals can realistically attain. These ideas of "functioning" and "capacity," which are at the core of this quality of life analysis, are used. Sen contends that rather than considering a person's wealth of money or perceived well-being, the proper way to judge how well they are doing is based on their capacity to lead a life that we have reason to value. But before we can start evaluating how well people perform in terms of capacity, we must first establish which functions are crucial to a good existence and to what extent, or at the very least, we must describe a method of evaluation to do so.

 

Comparing capability to other accounts of advantage requires more data since it not only takes a much wider view of what constitutes achieving well-being but also makes an attempt to measure the freedom people actually have to make good decisions. When available functioning are improved, so is the individual's effective freedom because the value of a set of capabilities symbolises a person's effective freedom to live a life that is valuable in terms of the value of the functioning that person has access to.

 

 

Assignment - III

 


Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

 

Q1) Differential treatment 6

Ans) Differential treatment refers to governmental actions that are purposefully created to discriminate against citizens based on predetermined standards in order to safeguard the interests of the most vulnerable. It is a policy that grants particular rights to underprivileged groups in society who have experienced social, caste, or racial discrimination in the past or present.

 

These are affirmative action initiatives the state has made to promote justice and equity for all societal groups. Reservation, reverse discrimination, positive/affirmative action, preferential treatment, and other terms are also used to describe this protective discrimination principle. The framework for analysing the idea of social justice in various egalitarian cultures is formed by these clauses taken collectively.

 

By extending preferential treatment to the economically and socially disadvantaged minority groups, it seeks to lessen the pervasive prejudice or inequality in society. The major goal of adopting differential treatment is to protect the weaker, historically exploited, and socially neglected segments of society. It also aims to liberate these segments from the hegemony of the powerful and resourceful by providing them with numerous chances for involvement.

 

Q2) Distributive Justice 6

Ans) In order to achieve equity of result by the state based on different elements including need, equality, and desert, distributive justice is concerned with the reasonable allocation of benefits, opportunities, and resources, etc. In response to utilitarianism, which placed a premium on quantity since it stood for the greatest enjoyment for the greatest number of people, demands for distributive justice emerged. Socialist, communist, and anarchist movements opposed the idea since they supported some economic levelling or allocation in order to guarantee happiness quality as well. A society's effective operation and its citizens' welfare depend on distributive fairness. True equality makes people feel like they belong in a society, especially the marginalised groups. This is crucial to prevent political violence and threats from within the country from undermining state power.

 

Q3) Some arguments against the concept of desert 6

Ans) The arguments against the concept of desert are as follows:

 

Metaphysical Argument: According to a typical reading, Rawls thinks that since these undeserving elements have a significant impact on all potential desert bases, the desert should not play any part in distributive justice. Because of this, Rawls places emphasis on the "Original Position" of the justice idea, according to which everyone will be covered in "a veil of ignorance."

 

The Epistemological and Pragmatic Arguments: Distributive schemes based on merit, according to Hume, could not produce definitive standards of behaviour and would be utterly damaging to society since humans are both sensitive to overestimating their own merit and imperfect in their awareness of the conditions that would define others' merit. The epistemological and practical arguments against desert reflect this way of thinking. The epistemological argument holds that we cannot accurately treat people according to their desert because we cannot know the precise specifics of the lives of every member of a community or civilization.

 

Libertarian Arguments: According to the right-libertarian, the concept of the desert is one that an individual should take into account when making personal decisions but not one that the government should try to use to direct resource distribution or allocation. Even if desert is a distributive idea, a left libertarian can view it as secondary to equality. As a result, according to both libertarian schools, a society's basic basis for distribution should not be a desert.

 

Q4) Global Justice 6

Ans) Global justice is a kind of normative theory of international relations that emphasises the moral responsibility of the wealthy to the underprivileged. The transfer of wealth to end poverty and inequality is the main theme here. In global justice, the emphasis is on people rather than on nations, and it aims to talk about what justice means to people all around the world. Additionally, organisations and potential agents who may have a responsibility for global justice are included. As a result, the concept of justice in international relations shifts from being centred on the state (international) to being centred on the individual (global).

 

Q5) Late 20th century Liberals 6

Ans) While Nozick promoted unrestricted free markets, free trade capitalism, and a minimum state in the latter half of the 20th century, Rawls promoted the welfare state idea while defending the capitalist system. According to Nozick, since people must be the objectives rather than the means, their rights are ultimate and society cannot limit them. Additionally, he made the argument that all political institutions are by nature coercive and demand the unanimity of the governed. He believed that a fair distribution of economic resources and social equality should be guaranteed through rights. He argued that people's entitlement to societal goods shouldn't be based on their inherent abilities.

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