Assignment Code: BSOC-103/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: BSOC-103

Assignment Name: Introduction to Sociology-II

Year: 2023-2024

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Assignment A

Answer the following Descriptive Category questions in about 500 words each.

Q1) Differentiate between the functionalism of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown.

Ans) Bronislaw Malinowski and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown were influential anthropologists who made significant contributions to the development of structural-functionalism, a prominent theoretical perspective in anthropology. While they shared some commonalities in their approach, they also had distinct differences in their interpretations and emphasis within this theoretical framework. Here's a differentiation between the functionalism of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown:

Bronislaw Malinowski:

1. Methodological Approach: Malinowski is often associated with the method of participant observation, emphasizing the immersive study of cultures by living among the people being studied. His fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands in the early 20th century is a classic example of this approach.

2. Functionalism as Individual Needs: Malinowski's functionalism, also known as "functionalism of needs," focused on understanding how cultural institutions and practices fulfil the basic, universal human needs of individuals, such as food, shelter, and reproduction. He believed that customs and traditions emerged to meet these needs.

3. Integration and Adaptation: Malinowski saw culture as an integrated system that adapts to the biological and psychological requirements of individuals. He emphasized that cultural practices serve to maintain social stability and psychological well-being.

4. Emphasis on Emic Perspective: Malinowski gave importance to the "emic" perspective, which means understanding cultures from the insider's point of view. He believed that cultural practices should be analysed in terms of their functional significance within the culture itself.

5. Influence on Functionalism: Malinowski's work laid the foundation for the functionalist approach in anthropology, particularly his emphasis on understanding how cultural practices contribute to individual and social equilibrium.

A.R. Radcliffe-Brown:

1. Methodological Approach: Radcliffe-Brown was known for a more structural-functional approach that focused on social structures and relationships rather than individual needs. He emphasized the comparative study of social institutions across different societies.

2. Functionalism as Social Structure: Radcliffe-Brown's functionalism was centered on understanding how social institutions and structures maintain social order and cohesion. He believed that social institutions function to regulate and stabilize society.

3. Holism and Comparative Analysis: Radcliffe-Brown advocated for a holistic and comparative analysis of social structures. He sought to identify recurrent patterns and structural similarities across societies, emphasizing the study of kinship systems and social organization.

4. Emphasis on Etic Perspective: The "etic" perspective, which entails evaluating cultures from the vantage point of an outsider or observer, was the one that Radcliffe-Brown favoured. He was of the opinion that the primary focus of anthropologists should be on determining the overarching principles of social structure rather than on the internal interpretation of cultural practises.

5. Influence on British Structural-Functionalism: Radcliffe-Brown's work contributed to the development of British structural-functionalism, which focused on analyzing how social institutions function to maintain equilibrium in society. This perspective was less concerned with individual needs and more concerned with social stability and integration.

While both Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown were foundational figures in the development of structural-functionalism, they had distinct methodological approaches and theoretical emphases. Malinowski's functionalism focused on the needs of individuals and the role of culture in fulfilling those needs, while Radcliffe-Brown's functionalism emphasized the study of social structures and their role in maintaining social order across different societies. Their work, along with that of other anthropologists, contributed to the rich and multifaceted field of anthropology.

Q2) Discuss the concept and emergence of Symbolic Interactionism.

Ans) Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological and psychological theory that focuses on the ways in which individuals create, interpret, and give meaning to symbols in their social interactions. It emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and communication in shaping human behaviour and society. The emergence of Symbolic Interactionism as a distinct perspective in sociology can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Emergence of Symbolic Interactionism:

1. Early Influences: Symbolic Interactionism was influenced by the works of several scholars in sociology and psychology. George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and William James were among the early thinkers who laid the theoretical groundwork for this perspective.

2. George Herbert Mead: George Herbert Mead, a philosopher and sociologist, is often considered one of the founders of Symbolic Interactionism. His work, particularly the concept of "self," played a crucial role in shaping the theory. Mead argued that the self is a social product that develops through interaction with others and is based on the ability to take on the perspective of the other, known as "role-taking."

3. Charles Horton Cooley: Cooley introduced the idea of the "looking glass self," which suggests that our self-concept is influenced by how we believe others perceive us. He emphasized the role of social feedback and self-reflection in shaping one's identity.

4. William James: While not a sociologist, William James, a prominent psychologist and philosopher, contributed to the development of Symbolic Interactionism through his work on consciousness, perception, and the role of the individual in shaping their own reality.

5. Chicago School of Sociology: The University of Chicago played a pivotal role in the development of Symbolic Interactionism. Sociologists like Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman, and Everett Hughes further developed the theory. Herbert Blumer, in particular, coined the term "Symbolic Interactionism" and outlined its key principles.

Key Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism:

1. Symbols: Symbols are the building blocks of Symbolic Interactionism. They can be words, gestures, objects, or any sign that carries meaning. Individuals use symbols to communicate and make sense of their social world.

2. Meaning: Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes that meaning is not inherent in symbols but is instead created and negotiated through social interactions. Meaning is context-dependent and subject to interpretation.

3. Self and Identity: The theory underscores the development of self-concept and identity through social interactions. The "I" (the subjective self) and the "Me" (the objective self, influenced by societal expectations) are central components of one's self-concept.

4. Role-Taking: Role-taking involves the ability to understand and take on the perspectives of others. It is a fundamental process in social interactions, allowing individuals to anticipate and respond to the behaviour of others.

5. Socialization: Symbolic Interactionism views socialization as the process through which individuals learn symbols, meanings, and societal norms. It occurs through interactions with significant others, such as family, peers, and institutions.

Contributions and Influence:

Symbolic Interactionism has made significant contributions to sociology, psychology, and communication studies. It has influenced research in various fields, including the sociology of education, social psychology, medical sociology, and the study of everyday life. Key concepts, such as role theory, dramaturgy (Goffman), and the looking glass self, have had a lasting impact on sociological thought.

Assignment B

Answer the following Middle Category questions in about 250 words each.

Q3) Explain the Dramaturgical approach of Ervin Goffman.

Ans) Erving Goffman's Dramaturgical Approach is a sociological perspective that likens social interactions to a theatrical performance, where individuals are seen as actors who strategically present themselves to an audience. Goffman, a prominent sociologist, developed this perspective in his work, particularly in his book "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life."

The key concepts and principles of the Dramaturgical Approach include:

1. Front Stage and Backstage: Goffman separates life into frontstage and backstage. Front stage is where people socialise and perform for an audience. Backstage is where people can relax and be themselves without image management.

2. Impression Management: Individuals try to affect others' perceptions of them through impression management. People meticulously build their image, conduct, and communication to convey a particular identity or impression. Props like dress, belongings, and body language can express distinct messages.

3. Roles and Scripts: Goffman claims that people play different roles in their interactions like characters in a play. These roles have structured actions, expectations, and social standards. As parents, teachers, employees, or friends, people follow these scripts to act their roles.

4. Audience: In the Dramaturgical Approach, the audience is a central element. It represents those who observe an individual's performance and form judgments based on what they see and perceive. The audience can include both real people and imagined or hypothetical observers.

5. Face Saving: Face-saving is a concept related to managing one's social identity and dignity. Individuals often engage in face-saving strategies to avoid embarrassment, maintain a positive self-image, or protect their social standing. For example, a person might offer an excuse to save face when a mistake is made.

Q4) Discuss the perspective of Levi-Strauss on culture.

Ans) Claude Lévi-Strauss, a prominent French anthropologist, is known for his structuralist perspective on culture. His work had a significant impact on the field of anthropology and influenced the study of culture and human societies.

An overview of Lévi-Strauss's perspective on culture:

1. Structuralism: In the structuralist movement, Lévi-Strauss led the search for the fundamental structures that influence human cognition, behaviour, and culture. He claimed that universal human mind constructs organised culture underlying the apparent diversity of cultural practises and ideas.

2. Binary Oppositions: Lévi-method Strauss's centred on binary oppositions. He believed that human societies organise around opposing ideas like nature/culture, raw/cooked, or hot/cold. These binary oppositions shape how people think and categorise.

3. Myth and Mythology: Lévi-Strauss felt myths expressed these binary oppositions. He observed that stories from different cultures resolve binary oppositions. He says myths help civilizations reconcile and make sense of opposing worldviews.

4. Elementary Structures: In "The Elementary Structures of Kinship," Lévi-Strauss examined several societies' kinship systems. He believed that family systems, which represent mythical binary oppositions, are vital to understanding civilization.

5. Universalism: Lévi-Strauss's structuralist perspective led him to emphasize the universality of certain cognitive structures and cultural patterns. He believed that there are common elements in the way human societies organize themselves, think, and categorize the world, regardless of cultural differences.

6. Critiques: Lévi-Strauss's structuralist approach has faced criticism, particularly for its alleged Eurocentrism and oversimplification of complex cultural phenomena. Critics argue that it tends to reduce rich and diverse cultural practices to abstract structures and may overlook historical and contextual factors.

Q5) Explain the thrust and activities of the National Organisation for Women.

Ans) The National Organization for Women (NOW) is a prominent feminist organization in the United States dedicated to advocating for women's rights and gender equality. Founded in 1966, NOW has been at the forefront of the women's liberation movement and has played a pivotal role in advancing women's rights in various spheres.

Here are its primary thrusts and activities:

1. Legal Advocacy: NOW has been instrumental in advocating for legal changes that promote women's rights. It played a significant role in the passage of landmark legislation like the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibited gender-based discrimination in education.

2. Reproductive Rights: NOW is a vocal advocate for reproductive rights, including access to safe and legal abortion. The organization has been involved in legal battles to protect and expand women's reproductive freedoms and access to healthcare services.

3. Ending Gender-Based Violence: NOW fights domestic and sexual violence. It assists survivors and promotes policies and laws to address these challenges.

4. Equal Pay: NOW continues to address the gender pay gap by advocating for policies that ensure equal pay for equal work. The organization raises awareness about wage disparities and pushes for transparency in pay practices.

5. LGBTQ+ Rights: NOW has expanded its advocacy to include LGBTQ+ rights and recognizes the intersectionality of gender and sexual orientation. The organization supports legal protections and anti-discrimination measures for LGBTQ+ individuals.

6. Political Engagement: NOW actively advocates for women's problems in politics. The group backs women's rights and gender equality candidates.

Assignment C

Answer the following Short Category questions in about 100 words each.

Q6) Distinguish between religion and science.

Ans) Difference between religion and science are as follows:

Q7) What is social change?

Ans) Social change refers to the transformation or alteration of social institutions, behaviours, norms, values, and structures within a society or culture over time. It encompasses a wide range of shifts, from small-scale changes in individual attitudes to large-scale transformations affecting entire societies. Social change can result from various factors, including technological advancements, economic developments, cultural shifts, political movements, and demographic trends. It can be intentional or unintentional, progressive or regressive, and can have both positive and negative consequences. Understanding social change is critical for sociologists and policymakers, since it provides a framework for analysing the dynamics of societies and how they have developed over time.

Q8) What is anomie?

Ans) Anomie is a sociological concept introduced by Emile Durkheim. It refers to a state of normlessness or breakdown of social norms and values within a society or a specific group. Anomie occurs when there is a lack of clear and shared societal norms and expectations, leading to a sense of confusion, disorientation, and moral uncertainty. This condition can result from rapid social change, economic instability, or other factors that disrupt the traditional social order. Anomie can lead to various social problems, including crime, deviant behaviour, and a sense of alienation, as individuals may struggle to find their place and purpose in a society with weakened norms.

Q9) What is Weber’s view on rationality?

Ans) Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, had a multifaceted view on rationality. He identified two key types of rationality:

1. Traditional Rationality: Weber recognized that traditional societies often operate based on long-standing customs, beliefs, and values. This form of rationality relies on established traditions and is resistant to change.

2. Instrumental Rationality: Weber also introduced the concept of instrumental or formal rationality, which characterizes modern, industrialized societies. It emphasizes efficiency, calculability, and the pursuit of goals through rational means. Instrumental rationality is associated with bureaucracies, capitalism, and the rationalization of everyday life.

Weber believed that instrumental rationality in modern society may disenchant the world by replacing traditional values and beliefs with efficiency and rational calculation. He examined how these rationalities affect social action and organisation.

Q10) What is division of labour?

Ans) Division of labor is an economic and sociological concept that refers to the specialization of tasks and responsibilities within a society, organization, or production process. In a division of labor, individuals or groups focus on specific roles or functions, often based on their skills or expertise, to increase overall productivity and efficiency. This concept is essential in understanding how complex societies and economies operate, as it leads to interdependence among individuals or groups who rely on one another's contributions. The creation of specialised professions and trades is a direct result of the division of labour, which is an essential aspect of the industrialization process.