Assignment Code: BSOE-141/ASST/TMA/2021-22

Course Code: BSOE-141

Assignment Name: Urban Sociology

Year: 2021-2022

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the Sections.

Assignment - I

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

Q1) Define and describe the concept of urban and highlight its nature and scope. (20)

Ans) Urban sociology is one of the most diverse and extensive branches of sociology. It draws from history, economics, social psychology, public administration, and social work, among other disciplines. It tends to conflate geography, with its emphasis on the spatial distribution of social institutions and social groups within cities; political science, with its emphasis on political behaviour, power, and decision-making; economics, with its focus on public policy, taxation, and public expenditures; and anthropology, with its focus on group culture.

Cities and their expansion are the focus of sociology, and it deals with issues such as city planning and development, traffic rules, public waterworks, social hygiene, sewerage works, housing, beggary, juvenile delinquency, and crime, among others. As a result, the scope of urban sociology expands, as it attempts to not only research the urban setup and facts, but also to offer solutions to problems that arise as a result of the society's dynamic nature. The interests of urbanologists (urban sociologists) and ecologists overlap in many ways with those of town and city planners, social workers, and other professionals in education, racial relations, housing, and urban development and restoration. As a result, several fundamental concepts in the subject must be clarified or redefined, including community, ecology, city, urban, urbanism, urban society, urbanisation, industrialization, modernization, and so on.

The origins of cities and the process of city construction are referred to as urbanisation. The process of urbanisation occurs when people migrate from rural areas to cities, whether owing to pull or push factors, and whether temporarily or permanently. In practise, urbanisation refers to an increase in the percentage of the population living in cities, as well as the number of people living in cities, the size of cities, and the total land occupied by urban settlements. It investigates how social activities are positioned in space and in relation to interconnected societal development and change processes. Urbanism, on the other hand, is the study of the various modes of life that can be found in a city. It is concerned with culture, meanings, symbols, daily living patterns, and processes of adaptation to the city's environment, as well as social conflict and political structure at the street, neighbourhood, and city levels. It is, according to Louis Wirth, a manner of life separate from that of rural places.

A group of sociologists and scholars working at the University of Chicago in the early twentieth century expanded and evaluated these theoretical foundations. The work of Robert Park, Louis Wirth, and Ernest Burgess on the inner city of Chicago, which became known as the Chicago School of sociology, revolutionised not only the purpose of urban research in sociology, but also the development of human geography through the use of quantitative and ethnographic research methods. The Chicago School's theories in urban sociology have been critically acclaimed and criticised, but they remain one of the most significant historical advances in the social sciences in terms of comprehending urbanisation and the city. Cultural sociology, economic sociology, and political sociology are some of the fields that might be used in this discipline.

The urbanisation of social life and the rise of cities have long been at the centre of social science research. Urban housing, politics, intergroup relations, class and stratification patterns, economic structure, demographic trends, and the formation of communities are just a few of the topics studied by academics. Because cities have the unique ability to bring together different cultural threads, social scientists have concentrated on social interactions in metropolitan environments. Because resources are scarce due to dense populations, economic difficulties and power dynamics are exacerbated. New ideas, people, and things are continually moving through cities, making them zones of confluence for economic linkages and other sorts of diversity. Globalisation and, in particular, the information and communication technology revolution, have had a significant impact on cities around the world, reigniting academic interest in urban sociology.

Q2) How does the city and its spaces understood in urban sociology in an ecological sense? (20)

Ans) The special setup of the city was one of the most distinguishing characteristics of urban neighbourhoods because they were all extremely different from one another and also quite dynamic in nature, meaning that they changed on a regular basis. In today's society, competition has become a way of life. It was as though people were acting like they were part of a sub-stratum. Ideas such as consensus and communication were supplanted by Darwinism. Consequently, the strongest residents would be able to choose the most advantageous sites, and the rest of the population would adjust accordingly. Dominance and symbiotic relationships amongst people played a role in locating and repatriating these individuals.

Burgess’ City

As a matter of fact, this is the foundation of Burgess' conception of a perfect city (Fig. 1). The central business district was the first circle on the map. The following circle could be interpreted as a path towards change. The effects of business and the economy were felt all the way from the centre to this location. Despite this, there were still things that were in opposition to it, such as the arts, immigration, and so forth. According to sociologists in Chicago, 'natural regions,' which referred to communities that were naturally developing, were generated by economic factors, not by nature. The generalisation that was made from placing Chicago in this fashion to placing other cities in a similar manner was met with some criticism as a result of this.

It was previously assumed that this concept implied a complicated division of labour. From the standpoint of travel and other considerations, this high level of distinction with separation of home and work spaces did not appear to be acceptable. It was also criticised because the land was always on the market and had no other worth other being a commodity. Despite its flaws, this hypothesis proved to be extremely beneficial to the Chicago sociologists. There was a specific type of anchoring offered to them, which allowed them to investigate transitional zones as well. The ecological ideas of space, on the other hand, were always influenced by cultural influences and the consciousness of humans. However, for some regions, the space was more important in terms of understanding social elements such as those of a metropolis.

The emphasis on urban sociology elicited a diverse range of comments from the audience. It is critical that anthropology and sociology not be treated as different disciplines. Even though they are not the same, urban sociology and urban anthropology are likely to be related in certain ways. While there have been some successes, there are also some issues that have not been handled, as well as an uncertain future. Despite the fact that it has the potential to become a pillar of strength for contemporary social anthropology. Some criticise it, however, for dealing with information and subject matter that, in their opinion, should not be included within its scope. A number of philosophers have expressed concerns about the inadequacy of theoretical views and methodological learnings supplied by anthropology. It would be fair to say that two streams of urban studies emerged in this area, one resembling contemporary urban sociology and the other more closely related to anthropology. The ecological approach to the study of cities was influenced by the fields of biological and social ecology, respectively. In terms of comprehending urban sociology, it has been really valuable.

Assignment – II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

Q3) What do you understand by urban political economy? Discuss. (10)

Ans) The link between local politics, such as city governments, and capital, such as finance and real estate, is the only focus of urban political economy. This link exists on both a local and global scale. This relationship does not exist in and of itself at the local level; rather, it is influenced by how cities, states, and nations operate, as well as the acts of national and international capital.

The term "urban political economy" refers to a framework that addresses two key issues in urban sociology. One is concerned with the reasons that cause urbanisation, while the other is concerned with who rules the city. It is possible to provide an economic explanation for these two problems, which appear to be separate and flexible in terms of being a key framework. A variety of urban occurrences may be explored using this economic explanation, confirming the dominance of urban political economy in urban sociology. According to urban political economy, the economy and political systems within a city constitute a dynamic and antagonistic mechanism for wealth extraction.

An investigation of the urban ecology is known as urban political economics; it explains the growth of cities and other urban zones while also examining their structures. With its emphasis on the concept of space and the battle for resources among individuals or groups, the rules are seen as representations of fundamental driving factors in the political and economic players. As a result, institutions such as city governments, business elites, urban policymakers, and others are no longer considered true urban structures. Due to their denial of authority, there has been a struggle between these structures. As a result, urban political economists began to place a greater emphasis on and explain urban connections by looking at the function of social power and economic systems.

Q4) Explain the significance of network in urban sociology. (10)

Ans) The organising principle of networks is used to redefine social structures. Human ties with production/consumption, as well as any power dynamics or experience being vocal in a meaningful engagement within the fabric of culture, are included in the social structures. Sociology must seize the chance to articulate the conceptual and methodological challenges that are emerging inside the new social structure.

For many people, meaningful physical environment is a primary source of experience building. Furthermore, because interactive communication takes place over a long distance, physical space cannot be completely eliminated. It simply aids in the formation of a new form, type, or type of space. Electronic networks and information flow make up this space. In addition to this, it consists of regions, as the physical space requires network connectivity to function.

This flow of space is made up of several locations that are linked together via telecommunications, transportation, and information technologies. There has been a lot of discussion recently about 'the global city.' It is vital to stress that this global city is not only a large metropolitan area that occupies a prominent position in the global geographical landscape. Such cities existed before and were known as 'global cities.' As a result, the global city is not a territorial city. It can be found in a variety of cities around the world, in small, large, and even larger settings. These global cities are made up of global economies that are spread over multiple cities and are interconnected. It is through this that worldwide communication is managed.

Because of its global management network, some portions of Manhattan, for example, may be considered a global metropolis. In other words, global cities become a network of non-territorial locations linked by networks that transcend local boundaries. This is a method of investigating inter-territorial networks, as well as their connections and relationships with the current local environment. As a result, a link between the local and the global is established. We can see that new structures are created by the interaction of discontinuous networks with local regions.

Q5) Mention some of the social consequences of migration on urban society. (10)

Ans) Migrants play an important role in social change. It results in the blending of people of various cultures. It has a favourable impact on the evolution of composite culture and the broadening of people's mental horizons by breaking through restricted considerations. However, it has major negative implications such as anonymity, depression, and falling into the trap of anti-social activities such as crime and drug misuse.

The following points can be used to assess the social repercussions of rural to urban migration for rural source locations.

The impacts of migration on individual migrants, who come from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, the effects on the resource basis of the migrants' family who have been left behind, and the effects of migration on the migrants' village community.

Second, the social consequences of rural to urban migration for urban destination areas can be investigated in terms of the effects on migrants' degree of exposure to the city, the effects on migrants' patterns of resocialization into the urban way of life, their acculturation and cultural transformation, the effects of rural to urban migration on migrants' location and adjustment to the urban social setting, and the effects on the nature of interactions.

At both the rural source and the urban destination, migration is a result of certain objective social conditions. These circumstances are referred to as rural push and urban pull migration forces. The interaction of these push-pull factors is crucial in determining the flow of outbound or inbound migration.

Migration is a process that is both separative and additive. It isolates people from their places of origin and places them in places where they want to go. These migration functions have significant social ramifications. Individual migrants are separated from their origin locations as a result of migration.

Assignment – III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

Q6) Pull factors and push factors in migration. Explain. (6)

Ans) The typical push-pull mechanisms that caused individuals from poor areas to migrate to wealthier rural and urban areas still persist, and they may even be exacerbated by rising population pressure and deteriorating land. Following the liberalisation of the Indian economy, rural-urban migration surged, driving more individuals from rural areas to urban areas in search of better job prospects. People move for a variety of reasons. These factors could be classified as environmental, economic, cultural, or sociopolitical. There may also be 'push' or 'pull' variables within that.

Push Factors

Push factors are those that compel a person to move voluntarily, and in many circumstances, they are compelled since staying would put them in danger. Conflict, drought, starvation, or excessive religious activity are examples of push causes. Low economic activity and a scarcity of job prospects are also major motivators for people to migrate. Race and discriminatory cultures, political intolerance, and persecution of those who question the existing quo are all push factors.

Pull Factors

The factors in the destination country that entice a person or a group to leave their home are known as pull factors. These elements are referred to as place utility, which is the attractiveness of a location. People are frequently drawn to new regions by better economic prospects, more jobs, and the promise of a better life. Individuals can have beliefs and views about places that are not necessarily correct but are powerful pull factors for them. Many people opt for warm weather, calm, and comfortable settings to spend their retirement after a lifetime of hard work and investments when they get older and retire. Such good locations can serve as pull factors.

Q7) Distinguish urbanization and urbanism. (6)

Ans) The differences between urbanization and urbanism are:

Urbanization: The transfer of people from rural to urban regions, and the accompanying increase in the proportion of people who live in cities rather than rural areas, is known as urbanisation. "The transfer of people from villages concerned largely or solely with agriculture to other places, generally larger, whose activities are primarily centred in government, trade, manufacture, or associated interests," according to Thompson Warren. Urbanization, according to Anderson, is a two-way process rather than a one-way process. It entails not just migration from villages to cities and a shift from agriculture to commerce, trade, service, and profession, but also a shift in migrants' attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour patterns. He identifies five aspects of urbanisation: money economy, civil administration, cultural changes, written records, and innovations.

Urbanism: The term "urbanism" refers to a manner of living. It reflects a society organised around a complicated division of labour, high levels of technology, great mobility, interdependence of people in carrying out economic functions, and impersonality in social relationships.

Q8) What are slums? (6)

Ans) Rapid urbanisation and population increase, particularly in developing nations such as India, are major concerns. Most Indian cities have experienced tremendous growth, notably in terms of population. Massive slums have become a prominent characteristic of many low- and middle-income countries' cities. Slums are hazardous environments with a high risk of infection and damage, and children are particularly vulnerable. Malnutrition combined with recurrent diarrhoea leads to stunted growth and long-term impacts on cognitive development. More than ever, the urban environment is exceedingly complicated. As a result, it is important to remember that the existence of slums around the world is not only a sign of poor urban planning, but also a reminder that the slum is an important part of modern urbanisation.

Q9) Mention some of the types of cities. (6)

Ans) The seven types of cities are as follows:

Global Giants

These are extremely large, wealthy metro areas that serve as hubs for financial markets and major corporations and serve as key nodes in global capital and talent flows. There are six global giants: New York, Los Angeles, Tokyo, Osaka, Paris, and London.

Global Giants have the highest GDP and air traffic of all cities in the report.

Asian Anchors

These cities are command centers in fast-growing Asia, drawing on their infrastructure connectivity and talented workforces. There are six Asian anchors: Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, and Moscow. Asian anchors dominate other cities in terms of foreign direct investment.

Emerging Gateways

These cities are transportation and economic entry points for major regional markets. Emerging gateways include Mumbai, Mexico City, and Istanbul.

Emerging gateways are often clustered in developing regions with the lowest GDPs per capita in the list.

Factory China

These Chinese cities are distinctly reliant on export-intensive manufacturing to power economic growth and global engagement. Factory China cities include Chengdu, Qingdao, and Zhengzhou.

Factory China cities are among the fastest-growing on the list.

Knowledge Capitals

These cities are highly productive innovation centers with talented workforces and elite, tech-driven research universities. Knowledge capitals include San Jose, Seattle, and Stockholm.

Not surprisingly, knowledge capitals dominate the innovation and education sectors of the report.

American Middleweights

These cities are relatively wealthy and house strong universities and other anchor institutions. American middleweights include Miami, Charlotte, and Sacramento.

International Middleweights

These cities are globally connected by people and investment flows. International middleweights include Sydney, Toronto, and Berlin.

The emphasis on urban sociology elicited a diverse range of comments from the audience. It is critical that anthropology and sociology not be treated as different disciplines. Even though they are not the same, urban sociology and urban anthropology are likely to be related in certain ways. While there have been some successes, there are also some issues that have not been handled, as well as an uncertain future. Despite the fact that it has the potential to become a pillar of strength for contemporary social anthropology. Some criticise it, however, for dealing with information and subject matter that, in their opinion, should not be included within its scope. A number of philosophers have expressed concerns about the inadequacy of theoretical views and methodological learnings supplied by anthropology. It would be fair to say that two streams of urban studies emerged in this area, one resembling contemporary urban sociology and the other more closely related to anthropology. The ecological approach to the study of cities was influenced by the fields of biological and social ecology, respectively. In terms of comprehending urban sociology, it has been really valuable.

Assignment – II

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

Q3) What do you understand by urban political economy? Discuss. (10)

Ans) The link between local politics, such as city governments, and capital, such as finance and real estate, is the only focus of urban political economy. This link exists on both a local and global scale. This relationship does not exist in and of itself at the local level; rather, it is influenced by how cities, states, and nations operate, as well as the acts of national and international capital.

The term "urban political economy" refers to a framework that addresses two key issues in urban sociology. One is concerned with the reasons that cause urbanisation, while the other is concerned with who rules the city. It is possible to provide an economic explanation for these two problems, which appear to be separate and flexible in terms of being a key framework. A variety of urban occurrences may be explored using this economic explanation, confirming the dominance of urban political economy in urban sociology. According to urban political economy, the economy and political systems within a city constitute a dynamic and antagonistic mechanism for wealth extraction.

An investigation of the urban ecology is known as urban political economics; it explains the growth of cities and other urban zones while also examining their structures. With its emphasis on the concept of space and the battle for resources among individuals or groups, the rules are seen as representations of fundamental driving factors in the political and economic players. As a result, institutions such as city governments, business elites, urban policymakers, and others are no longer considered true urban structures. Due to their denial of authority, there has been a struggle between these structures. As a result, urban political economists began to place a greater emphasis on and explain urban connections by looking at the function of social power and economic systems.

Q4) Explain the significance of network in urban sociology. (10)

Ans) The organising principle of networks is used to redefine social structures. Human ties with production/consumption, as well as any power dynamics or experience being vocal in a meaningful engagement within the fabric of culture, are included in the social structures. Sociology must seize the chance to articulate the conceptual and methodological challenges that are emerging inside the new social structure.

For many people, meaningful physical environment is a primary source of experience building. Furthermore, because interactive communication takes place over a long distance, physical space cannot be completely eliminated. It simply aids in the formation of a new form, type, or type of space. Electronic networks and information flow make up this space. In addition to this, it consists of regions, as the physical space requires network connectivity to function.

This flow of space is made up of several locations that are linked together via telecommunications, transportation, and information technologies. There has been a lot of discussion recently about 'the global city.' It is vital to stress that this global city is not only a large metropolitan area that occupies a prominent position in the global geographical landscape. Such cities existed before and were known as 'global cities.' As a result, the global city is not a territorial city. It can be found in a variety of cities around the world, in small, large, and even larger settings. These global cities are made up of global economies that are spread over multiple cities and are interconnected. It is through this that worldwide communication is managed.

Because of its global management network, some portions of Manhattan, for example, may be considered a global metropolis. In other words, global cities become a network of non-territorial locations linked by networks that transcend local boundaries. This is a method of investigating inter-territorial networks, as well as their connections and relationships with the current local environment. As a result, a link between the local and the global is established. We can see that new structures are created by the interaction of discontinuous networks with local regions.

Q5) Mention some of the social consequences of migration on urban society. (10)

Ans) Migrants play an important role in social change. It results in the blending of people of various cultures. It has a favourable impact on the evolution of composite culture and the broadening of people's mental horizons by breaking through restricted considerations. However, it has major negative implications such as anonymity, depression, and falling into the trap of anti-social activities such as crime and drug misuse.

The following points can be used to assess the social repercussions of rural to urban migration for rural source locations.

The impacts of migration on individual migrants, who come from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, the effects on the resource basis of the migrants' family who have been left behind, and the effects of migration on the migrants' village community.

Second, the social consequences of rural to urban migration for urban destination areas can be investigated in terms of the effects on migrants' degree of exposure to the city, the effects on migrants' patterns of resocialization into the urban way of life, their acculturation and cultural transformation, the effects of rural to urban migration on migrants' location and adjustment to the urban social setting, and the effects on the nature of interactions.

At both the rural source and the urban destination, migration is a result of certain objective social conditions. These circumstances are referred to as rural push and urban pull migration forces. The interaction of these push-pull factors is crucial in determining the flow of outbound or inbound migration.

Migration is a process that is both separative and additive. It isolates people from their places of origin and places them in places where they want to go. These migration functions have significant social ramifications. Individual migrants are separated from their origin locations as a result of migration.

Assignment – III

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

Q6) Pull factors and push factors in migration. Explain. (6)

Ans) The typical push-pull mechanisms that caused individuals from poor areas to migrate to wealthier rural and urban areas still persist, and they may even be exacerbated by rising population pressure and deteriorating land. Following the liberalisation of the Indian economy, rural-urban migration surged, driving more individuals from rural areas to urban areas in search of better job prospects. People move for a variety of reasons. These factors could be classified as environmental, economic, cultural, or sociopolitical. There may also be 'push' or 'pull' variables within that.

Push Factors

Push factors are those that compel a person to move voluntarily, and in many circumstances, they are compelled since staying would put them in danger. Conflict, drought, starvation, or excessive religious activity are examples of push causes. Low economic activity and a scarcity of job prospects are also major motivators for people to migrate. Race and discriminatory cultures, political intolerance, and persecution of those who question the existing quo are all push factors.

Pull Factors

The factors in the destination country that entice a person or a group to leave their home are known as pull factors. These elements are referred to as place utility, which is the attractiveness of a location. People are frequently drawn to new regions by better economic prospects, more jobs, and the promise of a better life. Individuals can have beliefs and views about places that are not necessarily correct but are powerful pull factors for them. Many people opt for warm weather, calm, and comfortable settings to spend their retirement after a lifetime of hard work and investments when they get older and retire. Such good locations can serve as pull factors.

Q7) Distinguish urbanization and urbanism. (6)

Ans) The differences between urbanization and urbanism are:

Urbanization: The transfer of people from rural to urban regions, and the accompanying increase in the proportion of people who live in cities rather than rural areas, is known as urbanisation. "The transfer of people from villages concerned largely or solely with agriculture to other places, generally larger, whose activities are primarily centred in government, trade, manufacture, or associated interests," according to Thompson Warren. Urbanization, according to Anderson, is a two-way process rather than a one-way process. It entails not just migration from villages to cities and a shift from agriculture to commerce, trade, service, and profession, but also a shift in migrants' attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour patterns. He identifies five aspects of urbanisation: money economy, civil administration, cultural changes, written records, and innovations.

Urbanism: The term "urbanism" refers to a manner of living. It reflects a society organised around a complicated division of labour, high levels of technology, great mobility, interdependence of people in carrying out economic functions, and impersonality in social relationships.

Q8) What are slums? (6)

Ans) Rapid urbanisation and population increase, particularly in developing nations such as India, are major concerns. Most Indian cities have experienced tremendous growth, notably in terms of population. Massive slums have become a prominent characteristic of many low- and middle-income countries' cities. Slums are hazardous environments with a high risk of infection and damage, and children are particularly vulnerable. Malnutrition combined with recurrent diarrhoea leads to stunted growth and long-term impacts on cognitive development. More than ever, the urban environment is exceedingly complicated. As a result, it is important to remember that the existence of slums around the world is not only a sign of poor urban planning, but also a reminder that the slum is an important part of modern urbanisation.

Q9) Mention some of the types of cities. (6)

Ans) The seven types of cities are as follows:

Global Giants

These are extremely large, wealthy metro areas that serve as hubs for financial markets and major corporations and serve as key nodes in global capital and talent flows. There are six global giants: New York, Los Angeles, Tokyo, Osaka, Paris, and London. Global Giants have the highest GDP and air traffic of all cities in the report.

Asian Anchors

These cities are command centers in fast-growing Asia, drawing on their infrastructure connectivity and talented workforces. There are six Asian anchors: Beijing, Hong Kong, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore, and Moscow.

Asian anchors dominate other cities in terms of foreign direct investment.

Emerging Gateways

These cities are transportation and economic entry points for major regional markets. Emerging gateways include Mumbai, Mexico City, and Istanbul. Emerging gateways are often clustered in developing regions with the lowest GDPs per capita in the list.

Factory China

These Chinese cities are distinctly reliant on export-intensive manufacturing to power economic growth and global engagement. Factory China cities include Chengdu, Qingdao, and Zhengzhou.

Factory China cities are among the fastest-growing on the list.

Knowledge Capitals

These cities are highly productive innovation centers with talented workforces and elite, tech-driven research universities. Knowledge capitals include San Jose, Seattle, and Stockholm.

Not surprisingly, knowledge capitals dominate the innovation and education sectors of the report.

American Middleweights

These cities are relatively wealthy and house strong universities and other anchor institutions. American middleweights include Miami, Charlotte, and Sacramento.

International Middleweights

These cities are globally connected by people and investment flows. International middleweights include Sydney, Toronto, and Berlin.

Q10) Foucault and his concept of power in cultural politics in urban areas. Explain. (6)

Ans) For Foucault, power is productive in the sense that it works to construct specific forms of subjective identities through the indoctrination of certain behaviours that, from the standpoint of the previous model of power as sovereignty, remain unseen. The antagonistic battles of social movements are directly linked to Foucault's varied theories of power.

The antagonistic battles of social movements are directly linked to Foucault's varied theories of power. He claims that in today's culture, the most essential part of these antagonistic fights is the way they confront subjectification, that is, the creation of distinctions between people based on caste, class, race, and gender. According to him, social movements are mostly built on the affirmation of existing identities, and hence on the acceptance of binary categorisations of normal/not normal established through discourses and power practises.

But they can also involve the rejection of existing identities: he lists conflicts against men's dominance over women, parents' control over children, psychiatry's power over the mentally ill, medicine's influence over the population, and administration's power over how people live as examples. For him, these are the major issues that can be used to dispute subjectification.

Ans) For Foucault, power is productive in the sense that it works to construct specific forms of subjective identities through the indoctrination of certain behaviours that, from the standpoint of the previous model of power as sovereignty, remain unseen. The antagonistic battles of social movements are directly linked to Foucault's varied theories of power.

The antagonistic battles of social movements are directly linked to Foucault's varied theories of power. He claims that in today's culture, the most essential part of these antagonistic fights is the way they confront subjectification, that is, the creation of distinctions between people based on caste, class, race, and gender. According to him, social movements are mostly built on the affirmation of existing identities, and hence on the acceptance of binary categorisations of normal/not normal established through discourses and power practises.

But they can also involve the rejection of existing identities: he lists conflicts against men's dominance over women, parents' control over children, psychiatry's power over the mentally ill, medicine's influence over the population, and administration's power over how people live as examples. For him, these are the major issues that can be used to dispute subjectification.