Assignment Code: BECE 214/TMA /2023-24

Course Code: BECE-214

Assignment Name: Agricultural Development in India

Year: 2023-24

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Section I: Long answer questions (word limit - 500 words).

Q1a) Explain the historical perspective of the evolution of the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India.

Ans) The evolution of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India is a significant chapter in the country's democratic history. PRIs represent local self-government and decentralization of power, and their evolution has been influenced by historical, political, and social factors. Here is a historical perspective of the evolution of PRIs in India:

a)     Pre-Independence Era (Before 1947):

1)      Ancient and Medieval India: India has a long tradition of local self-governance systems, including Panchayats, during ancient and medieval periods. These were community-based institutions responsible for resolving local disputes, managing resources, and governing villages.

2)     Colonial Period: The British colonial administration introduced centralized governance and weakened traditional local self-governance structures. They established local bodies, but these were often controlled by colonial officials and were not truly representative of the local population.

b)     Post-Independence Era (1947-1959):

1)      Post-Independence Vision: After gaining independence in 1947, India's leaders recognized the need for decentralized governance to promote local development and social justice. The idea was to empower local communities and ensure their participation in decision-making.

2)     Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957): The Mehta Committee recommended the establishment of PRIs as a three-tier structure - Gram Panchayats at the village level, Panchayat Samitis at the block level, and Zila Parishads at the district level. This laid the foundation for the Panchayati Raj system in India.

c)     1960s-1980s:

1)      Limited Implementation: The implementation of PRIs was sporadic and limited during this period, with some states making progress while others lagged behind.

2)     42nd Amendment (1976): The 42nd Amendment to the Indian Constitution in 1976 sought to incorporate PRIs in the Constitution as Part IX, but it did not provide adequate powers or resources to these institutions.

d)     1990s:

1)      Mandal Commission (1992): The Mandal Commission recommended measures to empower marginalized communities, including providing them with greater representation in local bodies.

2)     73rd Amendment (1992): This landmark amendment to the Indian Constitution, also known as the Panchayati Raj Act, provided a constitutional framework for the establishment of PRIs. It mandated a three-tier structure with elected representatives at the village, intermediate, and district levels, and reserved seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women. It also defined the functions and powers of PRIs, making them responsible for local planning, development, and governance.

e)     21st Century:

1)      74th Amendment (1992): This amendment extended similar provisions to urban local bodies, known as Municipalities.

2)     State-Level Laws: States were given the flexibility to enact their own laws to implement PRIs, resulting in variations in the structure and functioning of PRIs across states.

f)      Recent Developments:

1)      Financial Devolution: Over time, there has been an increase in financial devolution to PRIs, ensuring that they have the resources to carry out their functions effectively.

2)     Social Inclusion: PRIs have played a vital role in promoting social inclusion by reserving seats for marginalized communities, especially women.

3)     Participatory Governance: PRIs have been instrumental in promoting participatory governance and involving citizens in local decision-making processes.

Q1b) Review the PRIs functioning in the post-2001 years.

Ans) The functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India in the post-2001 years has witnessed significant developments and challenges. Several positive changes and reforms have been introduced, but certain issues persist. Here's a review of the PRIs' functioning in India during this period:

Positive Developments:

a)     Increased Financial Devolution: One of the most significant changes post-2001 has been the increase in financial devolution to PRIs. States are now required to allocate a fixed percentage of their total budget to PRIs, ensuring a steady flow of funds for local development. This financial empowerment has allowed PRIs to undertake more projects and initiatives independently.

b)     Reservation for Marginalized Communities: The reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women has continued, ensuring greater representation of these marginalized groups in local governance. This has promoted social inclusion and given voice to historically disadvantaged communities.

c)     Transfer of Functions: PRIs have been entrusted with additional functions and responsibilities over the years. These include education, health, sanitation, water supply, rural development, and social welfare, making them central to the implementation of various welfare schemes and programs.

d)     Participatory Planning: Participatory planning processes have gained traction, allowing citizens to be involved in decision-making at the local level. This has led to more inclusive and needs-based development planning.

e)     Digital Initiatives: The adoption of digital technology has improved transparency, accountability, and service delivery in PRIs. The use of technology for record-keeping, financial management, and citizen engagement has enhanced efficiency.

f)      Capacity Building: Efforts to build the capacity of elected representatives and PRI functionaries have increased. Training programs and workshops are conducted to equip them with the skills necessary to fulfil their roles effectively.

Challenges and Concerns:

a)     Funds Utilization: Despite increased financial devolution, the utilization of funds by PRIs has been uneven. Many PRIs, especially in rural areas, face challenges in planning and executing projects effectively, resulting in underutilization of allocated funds.

b)     Administrative Capacity: PRIs often lack the administrative and technical capacity to implement complex schemes and programs. There is a need for continuous training and capacity-building efforts.

c)     Political Interference: In some regions, political interference hampers the autonomous functioning of PRIs. Elected representatives may face pressure from higher levels of government, affecting their decision-making.

d)     Resource Mobilization: PRIs have limited revenue-generating capacity. They rely heavily on government grants, which can be insufficient to meet local development needs. Exploring alternative sources of revenue is essential.

e)     Gender Empowerment: While there has been progress in women's participation in PRIs, there are still challenges in ensuring their effective leadership and participation in decision-making processes.

f)      Quality of Services: Ensuring the quality of services, especially in areas like healthcare and education, remains a concern. Many PRIs struggle to provide essential services effectively.

g)     Inter-State Variations: The functioning and empowerment of PRIs vary significantly from state to state. Some states have made significant progress, while others lag behind, leading to disparities in local governance and development.

h)     Conflict and Disputes: In some cases, conflicts and disputes within PRIs have hindered their functioning and decision-making processes. Internal governance issues need to be addressed.

Q2) Explain the concept of ‘commercialisation of agriculture’ and the factors that contributed to its erosion during the period of 1900s.

Ans) The concept of "commercialization of agriculture" refers to the transformation of traditional subsistence-oriented agricultural practices into a more market-oriented and profit-driven approach. In a commercialized agriculture system, farmers primarily cultivate crops and raise livestock for sale in local, regional, or global markets, rather than solely for their own consumption or immediate community needs. This transition involves various economic, social, and technological changes.

Factors Contributing to the Erosion of Commercialization of Agriculture in the 1900s are as follows:

a)     Land Reforms: In the post-independence period, several Indian states implemented land reforms aimed at reducing land concentration and redistributing land to landless and marginal farmers. Land ceilings were imposed to limit the size of landholdings, and surplus land was distributed among landless peasants. These reforms, while promoting equity, sometimes led to smaller landholdings that were less conducive to large-scale commercial farming.

b)     Agricultural Price Policies: During the Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s, the Indian government introduced policies that aimed to boost food production by providing price support to farmers for certain crops like wheat and rice. While these policies increased production, they also encouraged farmers to focus on these crops, often at the expense of diversification and crop choice based on market demand.

c)     Subsidies and Input Support: The government provided subsidies on inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation, which initially helped increase agricultural productivity. However, over time, these subsidies led to overuse of resources and environmental degradation. Additionally, the subsidies sometimes distorted market incentives and encouraged practices that weren't economically sustainable.

d)     Credit Policies: Access to credit, particularly through rural cooperative banks, was made available to farmers at concessional interest rates. While this helped farmers access capital, it also sometimes led to over-indebtedness, as farmers took loans for non-productive purposes.

e)     Public Distribution System (PDS): The PDS aimed to provide food security by distributing essential commodities like rice and wheat at subsidized prices to consumers. While this was a vital welfare program, it also meant that farmers had a guaranteed market for these crops at government-set prices, which might not reflect market realities.

f)      Minimum Support Price (MSP): The government set minimum support prices for various crops to ensure farmers received a fair price for their produce. While this provided some income stability to farmers, it also led to overproduction of certain crops, straining natural resources and distorting market dynamics.

g)     Extension Services: The government provided agricultural extension services to educate farmers about modern farming practices and technologies. While this helped improve yields, it sometimes created dependency on government guidance and discouraged independent decision-making.

h)     Infrastructure Development: Investments in rural infrastructure, including roads, transportation, and storage facilities, improved market access for farmers. However, in some cases, inadequate post-harvest infrastructure led to significant post-harvest losses, reducing the commercial viability of farming.

i)       Globalization and Liberalization: The 1991 economic reforms in India led to globalization and liberalization of the economy, opening up markets to foreign competition. While this increased access to global markets, it also exposed Indian farmers to international price volatility and competition.

j)       Cultural and Societal Factors: Traditional agrarian cultures and practices often prioritize subsistence farming and self-sufficiency. This cultural factor, combined with societal attitudes towards farming as a way of life, contributed to the persistence of subsistence-oriented agriculture in some regions.

k)     Climate and Environmental Concerns: Environmental challenges, such as water scarcity, soil degradation, and climate change, have forced farmers to adopt more sustainable and risk-mitigating practices, sometimes reducing the focus on cash crops.

Section II: Medium answer questions (word limit - 250 words).

Q3) Explain the importance of economic policies to agricultural development.

Ans) Economic policies play a crucial role in agricultural development as they influence the overall framework within which the agricultural sector operates. These policies affect various aspects of agriculture, from production and productivity to income distribution, food security, and sustainability. Here's the importance of economic policies in agricultural development:

a)     Resource Allocation: Economic policies determine the allocation of resources, including land, labor, capital, and technology, to the agricultural sector. Policies that prioritize agriculture can lead to increased investment and modernization of farming practices.

b)     Productivity Enhancement: Policies can incentivize the adoption of modern technologies, improved seeds, and sustainable farming practices. This, in turn, can lead to higher agricultural productivity, ensuring food security and reducing poverty.

c)     Price Stabilization: Price support policies, such as minimum support prices (MSPs) or price stabilization funds, help farmers receive remunerative prices for their produce. This stability encourages farmers to invest in agriculture and reduces income volatility.

d)     Risk Mitigation: Insurance and risk management policies can protect farmers from the adverse impacts of natural disasters, price fluctuations, and production risks. This encourages them to take calculated risks and invest in agricultural activities.

e)     Market Access: Policies related to infrastructure development, logistics, and market access can enable farmers to reach broader markets and obtain better prices for their products. This stimulates agricultural growth and rural development.

f)      Trade and Export Promotion: International trade policies impact agricultural exports. Encouraging exports can lead to increased income for farmers and exposure to global markets, potentially boosting agricultural development.

g)     Credit Availability: Policies that facilitate access to affordable credit for farmers can help them invest in technology, equipment, and inputs, leading to increased agricultural production.

h)     Research and Innovation: Government policies play a role in funding agricultural research and development, which is essential for innovation and the adoption of new technologies that enhance productivity and sustainability.

i)       Land Reforms: Land policies and land tenure systems can have a significant impact on agricultural development. Ensuring secure land rights can incentivize farmers to invest in land improvements.

j)       Environmental Sustainability: Policies that promote sustainable farming practices, soil conservation, and natural resource management are vital for the long-term viability of agriculture.

k)     Rural Development: Agriculture policies can be linked with broader rural development policies, including investments in education, healthcare, and infrastructure, to improve the overall well-being of rural communities.

l)       Income Distribution: Economic policies can address income disparities by ensuring that farmers receive fair compensation for their labor and resources. This contributes to poverty reduction and social equity.

m)   Food Security: Policies that focus on increasing agricultural production and providing food safety nets are critical for ensuring food security, particularly in developing countries.

Q4) Discuss the various modes of irrigation practiced in India.

Ans) India practices various modes of irrigation to meet the water needs of its diverse agricultural landscape. These modes of irrigation play a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security. Here are the various modes of irrigation practiced in India:

a)     Canal Irrigation:

1)      Surface Canals: Canals are channels that carry water from rivers, reservoirs, or other water sources to agricultural fields. They are the most extensive mode of irrigation in India, especially in the northern plains. The Indira Gandhi Canal and the Bhakra-Nangal Canal are notable examples.

2)     Underground Canals: In some regions, canals are built underground to reduce water loss through evaporation and seepage. The Sardar Sarovar Canal in Gujarat is an example.

b)     Tube Wells and Bore Wells:

1)      Electric Tube Wells: Electrically operated tube wells pump groundwater for irrigation. These are prevalent in regions with access to electricity, such as Punjab and Haryana.

2)     Diesel Tube Wells: In areas with unreliable or no electricity supply, diesel tube wells are used to extract groundwater.

c)     Drip Irrigation:

1)      Drip System: Drip irrigation is a precise method that delivers water directly to the roots of plants through a network of pipes and tubing with the help of emitters, minimizing water wastage. It is often used for high-value cash crops and in arid regions.

d)     Sprinkler Irrigation:

1)      Sprinkler System: Sprinkler irrigation involves spraying water over the crops, similar to rainfall. It is suitable for various crops and helps in reducing water consumption. It is commonly used in horticulture and fruit orchards.

e)     Subsurface Irrigation:

1)      Subsurface Pipes: Subsurface irrigation involves burying pipes with small openings below the ground's surface. Water is delivered directly to the root zone, minimizing evaporation losses.

f)      Tank Irrigation:

1)      Farm Ponds: In many parts of India, especially in rainfed areas, farmers construct small farm ponds or tanks to store rainwater for irrigation during dry periods.

g)     Check Dam Irrigation:

1)      Check Dams: Check dams are constructed across small seasonal rivers or streams to store water temporarily. Water collected behind the check dam is used for irrigation in the downstream areas.

h)     Lift Irrigation:

1)      Lift Pumps: Lift irrigation involves lifting water from a water source, such as a river or canal, to a higher elevation for irrigation using pumps. It is common in regions with varying topography.

i)       Traditional Methods:

1)      Pulley System and Persian Wheel: In some regions, traditional methods like pulley systems and Persian wheels are used to draw water from wells and distribute it to fields.

2)     Treadle Pump: These human-powered pumps are operated by a person's foot and are commonly used by small-scale farmers, particularly in regions with a shallow water table.

Q5) Examine the performance of ‘tenancy reforms’ over the period 1951-1991.

Ans) Tenancy reforms in India were introduced with the objective of improving the status of tenants, often landless or marginal farmers, and providing them with security of tenure and fair rights in agricultural land. The period from 1951 to 1991 witnessed the implementation and evolution of tenancy reforms, and their performance varied across states. Here is an examination of the performance of tenancy reforms during this period:

Positive Outcomes:

a)     Security of Tenure: Tenancy reforms provided tenants with legal protection and security of tenure, reducing the risk of eviction. This encouraged tenants to invest in land improvement and agricultural activities.

b)     Land Redistribution: In some states, tenancy reforms led to the redistribution of surplus land from landlords to tenants. This helped in reducing land concentration and promoting land equity.

c)     Increased Productivity: With secure access to land, tenants were motivated to invest in farming activities, leading to increased agricultural productivity in some regions.

d)     Reduction in Exploitation: Tenancy reforms aimed to protect tenants from exploitative practices of landlords. Landlords were prevented from charging exorbitant rents or appropriating a disproportionate share of the produce.

Challenges and Limitations:

a)     Incomplete Implementation: Tenancy reforms were not uniformly implemented across all states, leading to regional disparities. Some states made significant progress, while others lagged behind.

b)     Loopholes and Evasion: In some cases, landlords found ways to circumvent the reforms, such as by entering into sharecropping agreements that were not covered by the reforms.

c)     Inadequate Land Redistribution: Land redistribution often faced challenges in identifying surplus land, and the land transferred to tenants was sometimes insufficient to meet their needs.

d)     Lack of Awareness: Many tenants were unaware of their rights under the tenancy reforms, limiting the reforms' effectiveness in improving their conditions.

e)     Resistance from Landlords: Landlords, who often held significant political influence, resisted the reforms, and sometimes used legal or extra-legal means to undermine them.

f)      Land Fragmentation: In cases where land was distributed to tenants, it sometimes led to land fragmentation, which could reduce the overall productivity of agriculture.

g)     Inadequate Support Services: Tenants often lacked access to credit, extension services, and other support services, hindering their ability to make the most of their secure tenure.

h)     Interference from Political Factors: The success of tenancy reforms was often influenced by political considerations, which could lead to policy changes and reversals.

Q6) Rural industries were promoted in India over the period 1951-1991. Explain the policy measures initiated with respect to such industries.

Ans) During the period from 1951 to 1991, India implemented various policy measures to promote rural industries as part of its economic development and rural upliftment efforts. These policy measures aimed to harness local resources, create employment opportunities, and reduce rural poverty. Here are some key policy initiatives:

a)     Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC): Established in 1957, KVIC was a pivotal institution tasked with promoting and developing khadi and village industries. It provided financial and technical support to artisans and rural entrepreneurs engaged in activities like handloom weaving, pottery, and traditional crafts.

b)     Small-Scale Industries (SSI) Reservation: The government reserved certain products for production exclusively by small-scale industries to protect them from competition with large-scale industries. This policy aimed to encourage rural entrepreneurship and create employment opportunities.

c)     Credit Facilities: The government introduced specialized financial institutions like the Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) to provide credit and financial support to rural industries. These institutions offered loans at concessional rates to promote entrepreneurship in rural areas.

d)     Technology Upgradation: Various programs and schemes were initiated to promote technological upgradation in rural industries. This included the dissemination of modern and improved technologies, technical training, and support for research and development.

e)     Cluster Development: The concept of industrial clusters or industrial estates was promoted to bring together similar industries in a specific geographical area. This approach helped in sharing resources, reducing costs, and promoting economies of scale.

f)      Market Access: Rural industries often faced challenges in accessing markets. To address this, marketing support was provided, including the establishment of marketing outlets, cooperatives, and marketing research facilities.

g)     Institutional Support: The government set up various institutions, such as District Industries Centers (DICs), to provide handholding support, guidance, and assistance to rural entrepreneurs. These institutions facilitated the establishment and growth of rural industries.

h)     Subsidies and Incentives: Subsidies, tax incentives, and financial assistance were offered to rural industries to reduce their initial investment costs and operational expenses.

i)       Research and Development: Research and development institutions, such as the National Institute for Rural Development (NIRD) and various state-level rural development boards, were established to conduct studies, surveys, and research to identify opportunities and challenges in rural industries.

j)       Skill Development: Skill development programs were initiated to enhance the skills of rural artisans and entrepreneurs, making them more competitive and productive.

Section III: Short answer questions (word limit - 100 words).

Q7) Write short notes on the following:

Q7a) Major issues of water resource management in India

Ans) Major Issues of Water Resource Management in India:

a)     Water Scarcity: India faces acute water scarcity in several regions due to over-extraction, inefficient use, and increasing demand from agriculture, industry, and urban areas.

b)     Unequal Distribution: Water resources are unevenly distributed across the country, leading to regional disparities in availability and access.

c)     Groundwater Depletion: Excessive groundwater extraction, often unregulated, has led to declining water tables, affecting millions of rural communities and agricultural sustainability.

d)     Water Pollution: Pollution from industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage has contaminated surface and groundwater sources, posing health and environmental risks.

e)     Inter-State Disputes: Water-sharing disputes among states, like the Cauvery and Mahadayi disputes, highlight the complexities of managing shared river basins.

f)      Climate Change: Changing rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures due to climate change further stress water resources, making adaptive strategies crucial.

g)     Inefficient Irrigation Practices: Outdated and inefficient irrigation methods result in significant water wastage in agriculture.

h)     Lack of Storage Infrastructure: Inadequate reservoirs and storage facilities limit water availability during lean periods and flood management during monsoons.

i)       Rural-Urban Divide: Rural areas often lack access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, exacerbating health issues.

j)       Water Governance: Weak water governance, policy implementation, and regulation hinder effective resource management and allocation.

Q7b) Cropping pattern in India

Ans) Cropping pattern in India refers to the distribution of different crops cultivated across the country's diverse agro-climatic regions. India exhibits a varied cropping pattern due to its geographical and climatic diversity. The country practices three major cropping seasons: kharif (summer), rabi (winter), and zaid (spring). In the kharif season, crops like rice, maize, and cotton dominate in regions with high rainfall. During the rabi season, wheat, barley, and oilseeds are prevalent in areas with adequate winter moisture. Zaid crops, including vegetables and fruits, are grown in the short spring season. India's cropping pattern is influenced by factors like climate, soil type, water availability, and government policies. Crop diversification is crucial for sustainable agriculture and food security.