Assignment Code: MPYE-014/TMA/2022-23

Course Code: MPYE-014

Assignment Name: Philosophy of Mind

Year: 2022-2023

Verification Status: Verified by Professor

Note:

i) Give answer of all five questions.

ii) All five questions carry equal marks.

iii) The answer of questions no. 1 and 2 should be in about 500 words.

1. Critically evaluate the view that Language is a contingent system of symbols which accidentally develops in the human community. 20

Ans) Many social scientists with a bias toward postmodernism, cultural relativism, and anti-foundationalism think that language does not necessarily possess any innate (grammatical) structure that explains so-called regularity. For instance, Rotry believes that language is an accidently created symbolic system within the human community. The needs of the human community have shaped how rules and linguistic conventions have developed. As a result, it is the only human community that takes into account language evolution in a specific historical and cultural context. Language lacks any "a priori necessity" of having a universal structure. As a result, there are no set, universal rules for language.

Location in society and interactions with close friends and family have a significant impact on an individual's symbolic experience, the symbols he has access to, and his social reality. Every person lives in a social world where they perceive their lives to be reasonably meaningful. We have friends, teachers, co-workers, and acquaintances because our families raise us. All of these peoples, along with numerous others of varying importance and closeness, are constituents of our social world. Some of these people have a significant impact on how our lives are shaped. They are what George Herbert Mead, a social psychologist, called "significant others." They give us the tools we need to perceive and define the world. Then, through the deeds of others, the knowledge that is external to the person is communicated to him. During the early stages of socialisation, these individuals will frequently be in close proximity. They create for him appropriate ways to experience his social world through their many interactions.

Frege's philosophy is unbiased and ahistorical. Thought does not originate outside of the psychological process; rather, thought is related to the psychological process. Its existence is independent of its mind. For instance, even if no one is aware of it, the Pythagorean Theorem continues to exist independently of our minds. Thoughts have a necessary and transcendent existence in space and time. Relationships (such as contradiction, entailment, etc.) that are embedded in thoughts are logical and, as a result, independent of the mind.

C. Wright Mill has studied the connection between language and social order in depth. He contends that people are situated in particular cultural frames both historically and socially. People use established systems of interpretation and description to explain and make sense of the world around them in every society. These frames of reference are supported by the society's historical social activity as well as by the continued operation of its key institutions. According to Mill, words have meanings because of the dominant interpretations that social behaviour has given to them. Interpretation or meanings are derived from ingrained behavioural patterns that depend on symbols. Implicit directives and social judgments are embodied in language that has been developed and maintained by society. By learning language categories, we also learn the structured "ways" of a group and the implications of those ways' value. The language system has control over how we behave, how we perceive the world, how we reason, and how we think. We also pick up a set of social customs and values along with language. A vocabulary is more than just a list of words; it also contains political, institutional, and societal coordinates.

Or

Explain Descartes’ mind-body dualism. Do you think Descartes successfully resolved mind-body problem? Give reasons to support your answer. 20

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2. a) Do you agree that animal has consciousness? Give reasons to support your answer.

Ans) Nonhuman animal consciousness is of philosophical interest for a variety of reasons. First, if philosophy frequently starts with questions about where humans fit into the natural world, one way people have tried to find themselves is through comparison and contrast with the creatures in nature who are closest to them, i.e., other animals. Second, the issue of determining whether animals are conscious pushes the boundaries of science's understanding and methods (beyond breaking point, according to some). Third, given the reliance of contemporary societies on mass farming and the use of animals in biomedical research, the question of whether animals are conscious beings or "mere automata," as Cartesians would have it, is of great moral significance. Fourth, even though questions about animal consciousness are frequently not given special consideration when developing theories of consciousness, the viability of such theories has occasionally been judged by the outcomes of their application to animal consciousness.

We struggle to draw conclusions about whether non-human species are conscious. We only know that they might not have conscious in the same sense as humans. Although we are aware that chimpanzees and dolphins exhibit awareness, as we move down the animal life scale, we begin to perceive many other functions as unconscious mechanisms. Many simple animals have tiny brains that are capable of just controlling rudimentary bodily functions. There may not be any chauvinism against other species at play in our thinking. It's quite possible that there is no subjective experience below a certain threshold, according to cognitive psychologist Dedre Gentner of North-western University. "I don't think you need to attribute anything more to a cockroach's behaviour than a set of local reflexes that cause it to flee from bad things and head toward good things," the author said. We observe this kind of stimulus-reaction process, which involves little or no thought, in many lower organisms. The higher animals in the hierarchy, however, may have superior abilities to comprehend and react to their surroundings wherever they are.

b) What are the Ethical implications of denying mind to the animals? 10=10= 20

Ans) The unfortunate animals have suffered greatly as a result of the moral ramifications of denying them the ability to think or feel pain, as is evident today. Numerous initiatives for the care and welfare of animals on a national and international level highlight the fact that the treatment given to animals is inhumane and that they do not deserve it. It is interesting to consider the extent to which the philosophical and scientific positions on the question of animals and the mind have influenced this type of treatment.

In the second half of the 20th century, as the nature of animal use in agriculture and research itself changed, social concerns for animals started to surface. At this time, it became clear the moral ramifications of denying animal mind or even felt pain. Here, the welfare of the animals was severely jeopardised, and the increased use of animals in places where humans couldn't be used was largely caused by the apparent denial of thinking to animals. Since domesticating animals, animal use has never been as severe or extreme as it was in the middle of the 20th century. They were employed as amusements for people. In agriculture, animals were employed in great quantities. When animals were used in agricultural settings in the past, there was concern about this. They were given the attention and care that their nature demanded, including food, water, medication, security, etc. Here, what is known as the "ancient contract" allowed for the mutual benefit of man and animals.

Or

What is ling in Samkhya school? How does the concept of ling (union of purusa and prakriti) address Mind-Body Problem? Do you think that Samkhya school successfully resolved mindbody problem. Explain, 10+10= 20

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a) Strong and Weak AI 20

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3. Answer any two questions in about 250 words each. 2*10= 20

a) Write an essay on the Wittgenstein’s account of understanding. 10

Ans) It is generally accepted that comprehension is a mental process, just like thinking. Wittgenstein takes a convoluted approach to sensation and thought. He contends that rather than studying the phenomena themselves, we should examine the language used to discuss various phenomena. In regard to human propensity, Wittgenstein asserts that "there is a spirit where our language suggests a body and there is none." This tendency results from the fact that we typically handle physical objects in a straightforward manner. Any real thing must be interpreted in terms of its physical nature, which is the paradigm. But whenever we encounter non-physical entities like minds, sensations, and so forth, we have a tendency to create illusory bodies devoid of any substance and solidity. Additionally, we give them attributes that can be given to physical bodies and then modify the attributes to say that they only apply to non-substantive things.

Typically, we think of meaning as a mental act. What kind of mental process is that? It's possible for someone to be completely focused on their work and unintentionally offend someone by speaking carelessly. Later, he claims that he was not intending it. What thoughts go through someone's mind when they say something and mean it, but do not when they say something and do not mean it? Eating and drinking are referred to as bodily functions. Similar to this, we frequently define meaning as mental activity. It is similar to a physical activity, but not the same one. This is yet another assimilationist error.

b) What are the presuppositions of Sphotavada? Discuss. 10

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c) “Mind and Language are inter-connected.” Explain and evaluate. 10

Ans) The different mental states—believing, desiring, hoping, fearing, etc.—have a propositional attitude, for instance: Krishna believes that "Meera loves him." All mental states contain "thought," which has a purpose. The aforementioned example should make it abundantly clear that the core of his belief is that Meera loves him. Language also contains meanings in the form of sentences. As a result, thought and language share many similarities. Different mental acts, such as making decisions, promises, predictions, requests, justifications, and so forth, are possible in addition to mental states. The creation and observance of rules, which form the foundation of language, is the most significant act. Language is designed to be followed according to rules, be they arbitrary or conventional. Language is created by the mind, and language enables the mind to advance or carry out its various mental functions skilfully and effectively. The information provided to the brain by our senses and the symbol of language are the two fundamental sources from which our experience of the world is built. Together, these represent the world of phenomena, which gives our consciousness its structure and contents. Even though phenomena that impinge on his consciousness, such as heat, light, and sound, are constructed through which an individual learns about his or her objective world. Through the symbols she/he uses to represent these phenomena, she/he distinguishes between them. Therefore, objects are constructed in the mind as concepts - as collections of stored symbols. One learns to recognise elements of his or her environment and to project possibilities and hypotheses as they develop control over symbolic activity by learning to associate symbol with sensation.

d) What is apohavada? How does Apohavada reject realist understanding of the relation between language and world? 10

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4. Answer any four questions in about 150 words each. 4*5= 20

a) Write a note on the John Locke’s idea of complex ideas. 5

Ans) The claim that Locke's use of the word "idea" is ambiguous stems in part from the fact that he uses it to refer to various types of entities. Within the category of ideas, he himself makes a number of distinctions: between simple and complex, specific and general, concrete and abstract, adequate and inadequate, and so forth. The items, however, are still all concepts in the same sense of the word: the presence of multiple species in a genus not only contradicts the idea that the term refers to multiple senses of the genus, but also the opposite. The fact that Locke refers to things that his forebears had referred to by different names while using the same term, "idea," is a more significant point. Here, I'd like to focus on the difference between simple and complex that is more stressed. The concepts that sensation provides "enter by the senses simple and unmixed"; they require mental activity to connect them into the intricate wholes necessary for knowledge. The concepts of "perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing and all the different acting of our minds" would fall under this category.

b) Discuss the idea of Intentionality. 5

Ans) The ability of mental states to be directed towards (about) or to be in relation to something in the outside world is the rich concept of intentionality, which is drawn from phenomenology. This characteristic of mental states implies that they have semantic referents and contents and can thus be given truth values. A problem arises when attempting to reduce these states to natural processes because natural processes are neither true nor false; they simply take place. Saying that a natural process is true or false would be absurd. However, since mental states (ideas or judgments) can be true or false, how can they be considered natural processes? Ideas that can be given a semantic value must be about facts if this is the case. So, for instance, the claim that Herodotus was a historian refers to both Herodotus and the assertion that he was. The idea is true if the fact supports it; if not, it is false. But from where does this connection originate. There are only electrochemical processes in the brain, and these don't seem to be related to Herodotus (PoM 2011).

c) What is Machine Functionalism? Explain briefly. 5

Ans) The computational view of mind is the fundamental tenet of Machine functionalism. According to functionalism, the mind is an instrument with specific functions. A state of mind is comparable to a computational state and can theoretically be shared by many different material systems, at least in part. The notion that mental processing is computation is a serious empirical hypothesis rather than a metaphor, as long as we have a general understanding of computation. As a result, discussing minds and mental processes is equivalent to discussing machines and their states.

A distinction of ontological levels is something that machine functionalism is also committed to. A specific computational operation can be realised in a variety of unique material devices according to functionalism. It can be implemented using vacuum tubes and wires, silicon, and transistors, or even a hydraulic system with tubes filled with water and valve

d) What is Substance Dualism? Explain briefly. 5

Ans) In general, there are two types of dualism: substance dualism and property dualism. The idea of substance dualism is well-known among non-philosophers. It contends that physical and non-physical substances are fundamentally different from one another and that humans are composed of both physical bodies and non-physical minds. This theory has a lot of appeal, but many people now perceive it as outdated and naive, whether they do so correctly or incorrectly. Property Dualism agrees with materialism that there are only physical substances, making it a substance monist. It does, however, acknowledge that these substances have both physical and non-physical properties, and that the non-physical properties cannot be fully explained in terms that are only physical. Although this position is meant to combine the best aspects of both, it also arguably includes both positions' drawbacks (PoM 2011). Substance dualism asserts that there are various kinds of substances rather than just predicates or properties. In this context, substance is understood to be the thing that has those properties, rather than just a collection of them.

e) Critically analyze the idea of emotional mind. 5

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f) “Understanding is a process”. Elucidate. 5

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g) Critically evaluate Kant’s understanding of perception. 5

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5. Write short notes on any five in about 100 words each. 5*4= 20

a) Volition as adaptive decision making 4

Ans) At its most fundamental level, volition is the quality of being a self-directed actor in the world with some persistent autonomous behaviour, where "autonomous" denotes that the behaviour of the system is best explained by internal rather than external factors (for example, a clock changing its display as opposed to a rock rolling down a hill). But this standard seems overly lenient; it disqualifies rocks and other inert objects while counting clocks, plants, and theoretically even bodies of water as having volition. At its most complex, volition encompasses not only fundamental autonomy but also the capacity to use internal speech to consider issues, make plans for the future, and consider whether a particular course of action is likely to result in favourable or unfavourable outcomes before taking it.

b) Innate structure of language 4

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c) Innate idea 4

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d) Phenomenology 4

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e) Epiphenomenalism 4

Ans) It does increase the chances of disembodied survival if we assume that the physical and the mental are separate. In any case, it disproves the primary argument against disembodied survival. However, both dualism and substance dualism are insufficient for disembodied survival. Even if one accepts that the brain and the mind are separate entities, one might argue that the mind still depends on the brain for proper operation, making disembodied survival impossible. The epiphenomenalist contends that although mental states and brain states are distinct, mental states are caused by the brain but do not have any causal effect on brain states.

f) Property dualism 4

Ans) Although the roots of dualism can be found in Plato, Aristotle, and the Sankhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy, René Descartes' formulation of the concept in the 17th century is considered to be the most precise. Substance dualism and property dualism are two subtypes of dualism. While property dualists maintain that the mind is a collection of independent properties that emerge from and cannot be reduced to the brain but is not a separate substance from the brain, substance dualists contend that the mind is an independently existing substance (PoM 2011). According to the dualist perspective, there are two fundamental or primary components of a person: matter and mind. Perhaps the most natural perspective is this one.

g) Brain 4

Ans) One of the key questions in the history of philosophy is how the brain and the mind interact. This is known as the mind-body problem. It is a difficult issue from a philosophical and scientific standpoint. Regarding the solution, there are three main philosophical schools of thought: dualism, materialism, and idealism. Materialism asserts that mental phenomena are the same as neuronal phenomena, dualism asserts that the mind exists independently of the brain, and idealism asserts that there are only mental phenomena. You might wonder what the connection is between the mind and the physical components of the brain. Through both direct and indirect scientific evidence, the relationship between the physical brain, matter, and the mind has been established.

h) Physicalism 4

Ans) Physicalism holds that the mind is a component of the physical or material world. Such a viewpoint encounters the issue that the mind appears to have certain properties that no other material object does. Therefore, physicalism must explain how these characteristics could still arise from a material object. It's common to refer to the endeavour of offering such an explanation as the "naturalisation of the mental." The existence of qualia is one of the critical issues that this project attempts to address (PoM 2011). Numerous mental states appear to be subjectively experienced by different people in various ways. Additionally, a mental state is characterised by some experiential quality, such as pain or the sensation that it hurts.